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When imaging the distal femur with the knee, rotate the limb medially and place the IR vertically along the medial or lateral aspect of the thigh and knee. The CR should be directed horizontally.

When imaging the proximal femur with the hip, position the IR at the level of ASIS and rotate the limb medially 10-15°, placing the femoral neck in profile. The CR should be perpendicular to the midfemur.

For both distal and proximal femur imaging, the central ray should be perpendicular to the midfemur.

To allow for proper alignment, elevate the ankle with a pillow or sandbag to ensure the epicondyles are perpendicular to the IR.

If the patient is in pain, an alternative position is to place the IR on the side nearest to the patient with the CR horizontal. The patient should be supine.

Patient supine with feet rotated 15-20 degrees medially, IR centered between ASIS and pubic symphysis. The heels are placed about 8-10 inches apart.

Ensure the pelvis is not rotated; it should be equidistant from the IR to ensure a true AP projection.

CR is perpendicular to the IR, aiming at the middle of the distal femur.

The image should show the distal femur, patella in profile, with a clear patellofemoral space.

The divergence of the X-ray beam should ensure the femoral condyles are not superimposed.

The patient is seated, leaning forward with their MSP centered on the IR. Thighs are abducted as much as possible. The IR is positioned 1 inch superior to the pubic symphysis.

The central ray is perpendicular to the pubic symphysis, 1 inch superior.

To visualize the pelvic outlet, which is the lower opening of the pelvis. This view is helpful in assessing the size and shape of the outlet for childbirth.

The resulting image shows the pubic symphysis, ischial spines, sacrum, and coccyx.

Both hips and knees are flexed, with feet drawn up. Thighs are abducted to 45 degrees.

The affected leg is flexed at the hip and knee, drawn up towards the opposite knee. The hip is abducted.

For unilateral imaging, the femoral neck should be parallel to the IR.

The central ray is directed perpendicular to the femoral neck.

Patient lies on their side with the affected hip uppermost. The legs are extended to prevent the femora from obscuring the pubic arch. One knee is placed directly over the other.

Patient stands facing the X-ray tube in a lateral position. Body weight is equally distributed, with a support used if limbs have different lengths. Central ray is perpendicular to the coronal plane of the pubic symphysis.

The central ray is perpendicular to the image receptor (IR). Targeted at the tissue depression just above the greater trochanter, approximately 2 inches from the skin.

This projection shows the lateral view of the lumbosacral junction, sacrum, coccyx, hip bones, and upper femora.

A bilateral projection often referred to as the 'frog leg' position, used to visualize the femoral neck. It's modified for patients with suspected fractures or other pathologies.

A variation of Cleaves projection where the patient is supine with flexed elbows resting on their chest.

The femoral head is displaced forwards, resulting in the shadow appearing above the acetabulum.

The femoral head is displaced backwards, resulting in the shadow appearing below the acetabulum.

A projection used for measuring the horizontal dimensions of the hip, demonstrating the relationship between the femoral heads and acetabula.

An X-ray finding seen in certain hip dislocations, characterized by a distinct shape resembling the wings of a gull.

The central ray is directed 35 degrees cephalad, exiting the pubic symphysis on the midsagittal plane.

A PAO projection of the pelvis shows the PA axial views of the pubic symphysis, ischial bones, and pelvic inlet. It also shows the ilium in profile.

In APO, the ilium is parallel to the image receptor (IR) and the side closest to the IR is imaged. In PAO, the ilium is perpendicular to the IR and the side farthest from the IR is imaged.

When the ilium is parallel to the IR, the image is an APO (Anteroposterior Oblique). If it is perpendicular, the image is a PAO.

In PAO, the side of the pelvis farthest from the IR is imaged.

The central ray should be angulated 5-7° caudally for a PA projection of the knee. This directs the beam slightly downwards towards the inferior aspect of the patellar apex.

The patient should be supine with the knee extended. The IR should be centered below the patellar apex, and the femoral epicondyles should be parallel to the IR. Slight knee flexion helps locate and center the patella.

The patient is positioned on their side with the affected knee forward and the unaffected knee extended behind. Hold the epicondyles to adjust perpendicularity. Adjust flexion for optimal joint visualization.

5-7° cephalic angulation ensures proper alignment of the knee joint. This helps prevent foreshortening of the structures and ensures optimal visualization of the articular surfaces.

The central ray should be directed 1 inch distal to the medial epicondyle, angled 5-7° cephalically. This ensures optimal visualization of the joint space and surrounding structures.

Over-rotation leads to less superimposition, while under-rotation results in increased superimposition of structures. Optimum rotation is crucial for clear visualization of the joint structures.

The patient should be prone with the knee extended and the toes resting on the table. The central ray should be angulated caudally and directed to the inferior aspect of the patellar apex. The femoral epicondyles should be parallel to the tabletop.

Weight-bearing AP projections of the knee are specifically used to evaluate joint space narrowing, which is a common feature of arthritic conditions. This view helps assess joint space width and alignment under actual weight-bearing conditions.

The Alhback procedure helps reveal joint space narrowing, a characteristic feature of arthritic conditions. This procedure allows for a more accurate assessment of joint space width and helps with diagnosis and treatment planning.

The patient must stand upright with their feet facing straight ahead, knees fully extended, and feet separated for balance. The central ray should be perpendicular to the knee joint.

The patient is positioned supine with the knee centered on the IR. The leg is laterally rotated 45 degrees, and the central ray is directed perpendicular to the knee joint.

Proper rotation (45 degrees for lateral rotation) is crucial for clear visualization of specific structures within the knee joint. It reduces superimposition and allows for better identification of details.

The patient is positioned supine with the knee centered on the IR. The leg is medially rotated 45 degrees, and the central ray is directed perpendicular to the knee joint. The hip of the affected side is elevated to help with rotation.

A lateral rotation AP oblique projection shows the femoral condyles, patella, tibial condyles, and fibular head. The lateral rotation allows for clearer visualization of these structures as they are positioned in a less superimposed way.

A medial rotation AP oblique projection displays the femoral condyles, patella, tibial condyles, and fibular head. The medial rotation provides an oblique view allowing for better identification of these structures.