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Questions and Answers

What does latent learning involve?

Immediate behavioral change upon learning.

Only acquiring knowledge through observation.

Learning through direct reinforcement only.

Learning that is not immediately apparent until a reward is introduced. (correct)

What do cognitive maps help animals do?

Learn through punishment alone.

Navigate and determine new routes to rewards based on prior exploration. (correct)

Forget previous experiences in new environments.

Immediately find food without prior experience.

How does observational learning primarily differ from operant conditioning?

Observational learning does not occur in humans.

Observational learning relies solely on rewards and punishments.

Observational learning occurs through imitation and watching others. (correct)

Observational learning is less effective than operant conditioning.

What is one consequence of children witnessing violence in their homes?

They might hate violence but still exhibit violent behavior more frequently than average. Signup and view all the answers

What concept explains learning behaviors without direct reinforcement?

Latent learning Signup and view all the answers

In Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment, what effect did the children exhibit?

They imitated the aggressive behavior observed in adults. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of modeling in learning?

To act as a benchmark for how to respond to different situations. Signup and view all the answers

What impact does media violence have on behavior according to research?

It is linked to increased aggression and decreased empathy. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of the behavioral approach to learning?

The environmental stimuli that shape behavior Signup and view all the answers

In the Little Albert experiment, what was the conditioned stimulus?

The rat Signup and view all the answers

What defines learning according to behaviorists?

A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best exemplifies taste aversion in classical conditioning?

Becoming nauseous after eating a specific food that previously caused illness Signup and view all the answers

What limitation of the behaviorist approach highlights the importance of cognitive processes?

Ignoring biological predispositions in learning Signup and view all the answers

In the context of classical conditioning, what is an unconditioned stimulus?

A stimulus that automatically triggers a response Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a real-world application of classical conditioning?

Users associating specific sounds with drug cravings Signup and view all the answers

What role does a neutral stimulus play during the process of classical conditioning?

It becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus over time. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following concepts is primarily associated with learning that occurs through observing others?

Observational learning Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of latent learning imply?

Learning that occurs without reinforcement and is not immediately evident Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following aspects is not part of the operant conditioning framework?

Conditioned and unconditioned stimuli Signup and view all the answers

In operant conditioning, what is the term for a behavior that is strengthened by the removal of a negative stimulus?

Negative reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

What is a common characteristic of observational learning?

Acquisition of new behaviors occurs by observing others Signup and view all the answers

What term describes a mental representation of one's environment that aids in navigation and problem-solving?

Cognitive maps Signup and view all the answers

What is the process of learning behaviors by imitating models or others called?

Observational learning Signup and view all the answers

Which phenomenon occurs when learning takes place but it is not immediately reflected in behavior?

Latent learning Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Learning Overview

Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in an organism's behaviour due to experience.
Learning associations are a key aspect.
There are various types of learning, including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.

Defining Learning

A behaviourist perspective defines learning as a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience.
Modern approaches to learning focus on more than just behaviour.

Associative Learning

Brains naturally associate co-occurring events.
This is known as associative learning or learning by association.
Early psychological investigations of learning heavily focused on this.

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is learning to associate one stimulus with another.
It was discovered by Ivan Pavlov.
This work formed a foundation for behaviourism.

Before Conditioning

Food (unconditioned stimulus) naturally produces salivation (unconditioned response).
Unconditioned stimulus triggers an automatic response (usually instinctive).
Unconditioned response is the unlearned response to the unconditioned stimulus.
A neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone) does not produce a salivation response.

During Conditioning

The neutral stimulus (tone) is repeatedly presented with the unconditioned stimulus (food).

After Conditioning

The tone (now a conditioned stimulus) evokes salivation (conditioned response).
The conditioned stimulus triggers a learned response.
The conditioned response often mimics the unconditioned response.

Classical Conditioning Continued

The neutral stimulus and conditioned stimulus are the same stimulus, but differ in whether the stimulus elicits the conditioned response.
The unconditioned response and conditioned response are the same response but are elicited by different events.
Learning is necessary only for the conditioned response to occur. Acquisition
Acquisition is the initial learning stage in classical conditioning .
In most cases, the neutral stimulus comes before the unconditioned stimulus.
The optimum time between the two stimuli is about half a second.
Learning is useful in predicting future events.

Acquisition & Extinction

Extinction occurs when the unconditioned stimulus no longer appears with the conditioned stimulus.
The conditioned response diminishes.
The conditioned stimulus no longer predicts the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

A rest period after extinction can lead to a return (spontaneous recovery) of the conditioned response.
Presenting the conditioned stimulus (e.g., the bell) repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus leads to a recurrence of extinction.

Stimulus Generalization

A tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.
Pavlov demonstrated this in dogs.

Stimulus Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other, irrelevant stimuli.
These stimuli do not usually signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Watson: Applying Classical Conditioning to People

The Little Albert study (1920) demonstrated classical conditioning principles in humans.
A baby (Little Albert) was classically conditioned to fear rats.
The fear generalized to other furry objects.
Watson's work in shaping emotional responses was influential.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is applicable to drug rehabilitation.
Substance abuse involves conditioned associations between drugs and stimuli.
To avoid cravings, users should avoid people and places associated with drug use.

Limits to the Behaviourist Approach

Behaviourists failed to fully appreciate biological predispositions and cognitive processes that affect learning.
In past, the laws of learning were deemed similar, however, more recent research shows learning is constrained by organism's abilities acquired through natural selection.

Biological Predispositions

Behaviourists initially thought laws of learning were similar, but research showed constraints by natural selection on learning.
Humans and animals are not considered blank slates.

Taste Aversion

Taste aversion conditioning demonstrates a time duration between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus that can be quite long.
A biologically relevant conditioned stimulus (e.g., taste) can lead to conditioning, unlike non-relevant stimuli (e.g., sight or sound).
Only a single pairing of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are needed for this type of conditioning to occur.

Cognitive Processes

Early behaviourists believed learned behaviours could be described simply through stimulus-response links.
However, later research suggested that animals learn about stimulus predictability (expectancy).

Expectancy and Classical Conditioning

In the Rescorla-Wagner model, a conditioned stimulus creates an expectation that the unconditioned stimulus will follow.
This expectation leads to behaviors related to the expected outcome.

Respondent vs. Operant Behaviour

Respondent behavior is an automatic, reflexive response to a stimulus.
Operant behavior is behavior that operates on the environment, causing a change.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning establishes associations between behaviours and their consequences.

Thorndike's Law of Effect

Behaviours followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to reoccur.
Behaviours followed by unsatisfying consequences are less likely to occur.
This was the foundation for future learning theories

B.F. Skinner

Skinner further developed controlled methods to explore Thorndike's principles.
His experiments provided insights into operant conditioning.

Reinforcement

Reinforcement is any feedback that makes a behavior more likely to recur.
Positive reinforcement adds a desirable stimulus (e.g., warmth).
Negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., turning off an annoying sound).

Context and Learning

The consequences of behaviour depend on the context in which it occurs.
Reinforcement and punishment become associated with salient aspects of the environment.

Primary & Secondary Reinforcers

Primary reinforcers meet a basic need (e.g., food, sex, attention).
Secondary reinforcers are associated with primary reinforcers (e.g., money buys food, etc.).

Shaping Behavior

Shaping guides behavior toward a desired outcome through successive approximations.
Reinforcers guide behavior toward a target behavior.
This method is widely used in animal training.

Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers

Immediate reinforcers occur directly after a behavior.
Delayed reinforcers occur at a later time.
Delayed rewards become less effective as the delay increases.

Delayed Reinforcers

Humans can link a consequence to a behavior even if it is delayed.
Humans tend to prioritize small immediate rewards over large, delayed rewards.

Reinforcement Schedules

Continuous reinforcement reinforces a behavior every time it occurs.
Partial/intermittent reinforcement reinforces a behavior only some of the time.

Partial Reinforcement: Ratio Schedules

Ratio schedules base rewards on the number of behaviors.
Fixed-ratio schedules reinforce after a set number of behaviors.
Variable-ratio schedules reinforce after an unpredictable number of behaviors.

Partial Reinforcement: Interval Schedules

Interval schedules reinforce behaviors based on time intervals.
Fixed-interval schedules reinforce after a set time.
Variable-interval schedules reinforce after unpredictable time intervals.

Effect of Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed ratio tends to lead to a higher rate of responding.
In variable-ratio responses tend to be high and steady, and even when reinforcement stops, the behavior will not usually stop.
In fixed-interval schedules there are usually bursts of high response rates around the time of the anticipated reward.
Variable interval responding takes place slowly but consistently.

Punishment

Punishment has the opposite effect of reinforcement.
Positive punishment involves adding an unpleasant stimulus.
Negative punishment involves removing a desired stimulus.

When is Punishment Effective?

Effective punishment occurs in natural settings when there is a consequence for actions (e.g., touching a fire).
Artificial punishments work best when the consequences are natural.
Immediate and certain punishment is more effective than delayed or uncertain punishment.

Problems with Physical Punishment

Results in behaviors restarting when punishment ceases.
Can result in associating fear or hatred with the situation or people.
Punishments model aggression and control.
Doesn't usually guide people toward specific behaviors, only tells them what not to do.

Applications of Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning principles are used across various contexts
Including education, sports, and business.

Applications of Operant Conditioning: Parenting

Rewarding small improvements is more effective for learning desired behaviours than simply expecting complete success.
Rewarding small developments in parenting models is more effective than punishing problem behaviours.
Giving in to tantrums is ineffective in stopping them in the long run

Applications of Operant Conditioning: Self-Improvement

Reward yourself for actions you take that lead to your desired goal.
Reinforcing good habits through infrequent (intermittent) reinforcements will increase success and maintain the desired behaviour.

Biological Predisposition in Operant Conditioning.

Inherited predisposition can constrain learning associations that are naturally adaptive.
Article "The misbehaviour of organisms" describes animals drifting toward biologically predisposed instinctive behaviours.

Evolutionary Predisposition and Operant Conditioning

Animals may not follow specific training behaviors if these behaviours do not align with natural impulses (e.g rats consistently turning right after being rewarded for turning left).
Foraging animals may not follow behaviours if they are no longer foraging in the same location.

Cognition & Operant Conditioning

Animals learn from the consequences of their behaviours.
It was observed that rats explored mazes even without a reward for completing the maze, leading to "cognitive maps"--a mental representation of the maze structure.
Latent learning describes gaining skills or knowledge from experience but not expressing this knowledge until a reward is given.

Latent Learning

Rats demonstrate latent learning by quickly mastering a maze after initially exploring and then being rewarded for successful completion.

Cognitive Maps

When rewarded after completing a maze, rats quickly demonstrate mastery of a similar maze.
This demonstrates a cognitive map.
Cognitive maps allow rats to determine new routes for successfully completing the maze.

Learning by Observation

Higher animals, particularly humans, learn by observing and imitating others.
Observational learning: watching others and learning from their actions.

Modeling

Modeling serves as an example of how to respond to a situation.
Observation can lead to imitation regardless of reinforcement.

Modeling and Imitation

Modeling and imitation begin early in life.
Children imitate others frequently.
Children often over-imitate copying behaviours with no function or reward.
Imitation extends to both behaviour and emotions.

Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment

Bandura's Bobo doll experiment demonstrated the impact of imitation, showing children imitating observed aggressive behaviours.

Antisocial Effects of Observational Learning

Children who witness violence (in their home environment) but are not harmed themselves can become violent more often compared to the average child.

Media Models of Violence

Viewing media violence leads to increased aggression and reduced prosocial behaviour like helping others
Media violence can increase aggression through imitation and/or desensitization to others' pain through modeling.

Prosocial Effects of Observational Learning

Prosocial behavior benefits others and contributes to the group.
Children imitate prosocial behaviour.
Demonstrating prosocial behavior can be more impactful in creating lasting results than rules or punishment.

Defining Learning: A Modern Definition

Learning is the acquisition of new knowledge, skills, or responses from experience leading to a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner.

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