Quantitative Research Sampling Techniques

Study Questions and Answers

• Individuals are the most common source of evidence in research and are frequently called participants or subjects.

• A sample is the collective group of individuals from whom data are collected.

• Probability sampling and non-probability sampling are the two main types of sampling procedures in quantitative research.

• Probability sampling involves a known probability of selection and aims to create a sample representative of a larger group, allowing results to be generalized.

• Margin of error is the extent to which repeated random samples will differ from the population.

• The margin of error decreases as the sample size increases.

• Simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified random sampling, and cluster sampling are three common random sampling techniques.

• "Non-response" in sampling is the problem of randomly selected participants not completing the research.

• Systematic sampling involves selecting every nth member from a list or population.

• Stratified random sampling ensures subgroups are proportionally represented in the sample.

• Cluster sampling involves selecting naturally occurring groups and then randomly selecting individuals within those groups.

• Non-probability sampling uses no known probability of selecting a participant.

• Participants are chosen for non-random sampling based on characteristics or availability.

• Convenience sampling is advantageous for its ease of recruitment.

• Both convenience and snowball sampling lack representativeness of the overall population.

• Participants in qualitative studies are purposefully selected to provide in-depth information on the research question.

• "Extreme case sampling" selects cases that are highly unusual or atypical.

• Stratified purposeful sampling and purposeful random sampling, which can be concurrent or multilevel, are two types of hybrid sampling approaches for mixed-method research.

• A subject's section should consist of a detailed description of participants, including characteristics, sampling procedures, and the specific population. Sampling description should be clear, unbiased, and precise.

• Reviewing the literature provides context by relating previous research and theory to the research problem.

• Reviewing the literature allows researchers to evaluate the similarities and differences between current and prior investigations. Helps to position the current research.

• Researchers are less likely to employ effective methods when lacking a good literature review, due to a lack of awareness.

• Review of literature helps focus research problem definition, providing better clarity, concepts, and variable definitions.

• Review establishes a conceptual or theoretical orientation by showing previously proposed theories' relevance and use. Establishes a logical link between research questions and methodology.

• Review helps researchers identify new directions and avoid duplication.

• Review helps find knowledge gaps and identify methodological limitations in previous studies, identifying areas for improvement of research.

• Identifying contradictory findings from previous research is important because this presents a chance to resolve the contradiction through new research.

• Existing theories are relevant when few closely related studies exist, or when literature doesn't directly address the research problem. Literature should provide evidence for the hypothesis.

• Reviewing related literature starts with selecting a focused topic and key terms.

• Database resources such as ERIC, Google Scholar, and specific subject-area tools are beneficial for literature searches.

• Primary sources are original research articles or reports, while secondary sources review, summarize, or discuss primary sources.

• Meta-analysis quantitatively synthesizes the results of previous studies using statistical methods.

• A meta-analysis is a good way to find flaws and patterns in various similar studies, using statistical methods to find conclusions in similar studies.

• Examing the methodology of meta-analyses is crucial to ensure credibility. Differences in how studies are identified and combined can affect the overall conclusion.

• Electronic notes and index cards are helpful for organizing research material.

• Notes on primary sources should include a summary of the study, an analysis of its relevance to the research problem, and summary of findings.

• Reference sections from primary sources are good resources for finding new articles.

• A "thematic" literature review summarizes a topic without extensively analyzing individual studies. Common in qualitative reviews.

• Evaluating literature reviews should address appropriate coverage, accurate citations of findings, and up-to-dateness of information.

• Essential elements for evaluating the review should include clarity of topic coverage, accurate portrayal of findings, recentness and relevance of information. Organization, analysis of prior research, and their relation to the research problem. A logical base for hypotheses, and the significance of the research should be covered.

Educational Measures

• Cognitive and non-cognitive measures are the three primary classifications of educational measures.
• Cognitive measures assess mental abilities (e.g., IQ tests), while non-cognitive measures assess traits like attitudes and values (e.g., personality assessments).
• Commercially prepared measures are those designed for broad use and locally developed measures are tailored to specific research needs.
• Self-report measures rely on participants' responses, while observations rely on external recording.
• Standardized tests, norm-referenced tests and criterion-referenced tests all have characteristics to differentiate between them.
• Three common examples are standardized achievement tests, aptitude tests and standardized tests designed for specific benchmarks.

Questionnaire Design

• Questionnaires are useful for gathering data quickly, but can be susceptible to response bias.
• The benefits of questionnaires include collecting data quickly. Disadvantages include susceptibility to bias, memory errors, and the distortion of responses.

Observations

• Low-inference observations record objective actions without interpretation, while high-inference observations involve judgment and interpretation.
• Key challenges in high-inference observations include observer bias (subjective interpretations) and reliability/consistency issues (variation in how different observers perceive behaviors).
• Strategies to reduce observer bias include: training, multiple observers, and ensuring observers are blind to the hypotheses.

Interview Questions

• Structured questions, semi-structured questions, and unstructured questions differentiate interview types
• The various types of interviews differ in whether there are predefined responses (structured), semi-structured questions include predefined themes and topic areas but no strict responses (semi-structured), and unstructured questions have more flexibility and focus on open responses from a participant.

Data Collection Methods

• Interviews are advantageous for collecting rich and detailed information, but are time-consuming.
• Double-barreled questions should be avoided in survey design to prevent ambiguity.
• Validity refers to the accuracy of a research instrument in measuring what it intends to measure. An example of validity might be a questionnaire designed to measure student satisfaction with a course accurately.

Research Ethics

• Informed consent is essential to ensure participants understand the research and agree voluntarily. Ensuring ethical integrity by giving participants clear information about the research to allow them to decide if they want to participate and providing them with the option to withdraw at any time.
• Anonymity and confidentiality should be maintained to protect participants' privacy.

Characteristics of Research

• Research is a systematic, disciplined, objective process involving data collection, interpretation, and reporting, differs from other knowledge sources by characteristics.
• Objective research is significant because it ensures that conclusions are based on unbiased evidence and not personal opinions.
• Verification of research results using replication is essential because it ensures reliability and generalizability of findings.

Principles of Scientific Inquiry

• A significant research question addresses important issues, has potential implications for educational practice, and contributes to knowledge. Theories provide frameworks for interpreting phenomena and generalizing findings.
• Research conclusions can be credible when researchers use a methodical approach, address limitations, and provide evidence-backed reasoning.
• Peer review is important as it ensures credibility, allows scrutiny, and validates research findings through professional critique.

Types of Research Designs

• Quantitative research focuses on numerical data, while qualitative research focuses on narrative insights.
• Mixed-methods research combines both quantitative and qualitative approaches to give more comprehensive insights into a topic.
• Limitations of qualitative research include small, non-random samples, limiting generalizability to a larger population.
• Sampling is crucial in quantitative research because it ensures that data is representative and conclusions are generalizable to the overall population.

Additional Research Types

• Applied addresses practical problems, while basic research expands theoretical knowledge.
• This involves improvement of practices and outcomes in a specific institution.
• Action research focuses on practical problems, improvement of procedures, and improvement of practices.
• Analytical research involves the systematic analysis of artifacts or events to obtain insights or knowledge.

Hermeneutics

• Hermeneutics is the study of interpretation, and it consists of two core aspects: interpretation itself and the philosophical examination of how we understand.
• Hermeneutic circle is a cyclical process of understanding parts and wholes.
• Friedrich Schleiermacher is considered a father of modern hermeneutics
• The notion of a Hermeneutic circle explores the relationship between parts and the whole in interpretations to avoid a singular conclusion.
• Gadamer's concept of "fusion of horizons" emphasizes meaning emerging from a merging of interpreter perspective and historical/cultural context. Key distinction between meaning/significance and how they differ.
• Hermeneutics of suspicion questions the trustworthiness of texts and explores hidden meanings.
• Critical hermeneutics examines power dynamics in interpretation.
• Steps for collecting experiential material: Initial interview, writing descriptions, questionnaire development, revised interview, and rewriting observations.
• The main challenge in phenomenological reflection, according to Van Manen, is the difficulty of searching for meaning in lived experience.