Qualitative Research Cycle and Key Concepts

Qualitative Research Cycle

• The qualitative research cycle encompasses:
  • Design: Formulating research questions and reviewing literature.
  • Data collection: Gathering data through interviews, focus groups, and observations.
  • Analysis: Organizing, coding, and interpreting data.
• Example of the qualitative research cycle: A researcher studying mental health in refugees
  • Designs the research scope by defining key concepts.
  • Collects data through interviews.
  • Analyzes themes in the data.

Qualitative Key Concepts

• Qualitative research explores people's experiences, perspectives, and social contexts.
• Qualitative research contrasts with positivist (quantitative) research.
• Verstehen (understanding) involves gaining deep insight into people's lived experiences.
  • Example: A medical anthropologist studying traditional healing in indigenous communities immerses themselves in the culture to understand people's beliefs.
• Emic perspective looks at the insider's view, how participants see the world.
  • Example: Interviewing women to understand their personal beliefs about childbirth.
• Etic perspective looks at the outsider's view, how a researcher interprets data.
  • Example: Analyzing childbirth experiences using a Western medical perspective by looking at risks and healthcare interventions.
• Reflexivity means researchers acknowledge how their background influences the study.
  • Example: An anthropologist studying indigenous healing rituals uses an emic approach, engaging directly with the community.

Goal of a Qualitative Study

• The goal of a qualitative study is to get as close to the phenomenon as possible by going back and forth in the research cycle.
• Research design is the foundation of a qualitative study.

Research Objectives

• Research objectives define what a study aims to achieve.
• Objectives can focus on gaining knowledge (academic) or creating change (practical).
• Example: A study in India aims to understand couples' views on having children (academic goal) and develop a health education program to improve women's well-being (social change goal).

Point of Saturation

• The point of saturation in interviews occurs when enough data has been collected, and no new answers are emerging.
• Qualitative research uses the interpretive paradigm, viewing reality as subjective and constructed through interactions.
• The goal is to provide an in-depth exploration of a phenomenon. Qualitative research is not meant to be representative of a large group.

Key Steps in the Design Cycle

• A design cycle consists of a research question, literature and theory, a conceptual framework, and research methods.

Formulating Research Questions

• Questions should be open-ended, exploratory, and relevant that focus on understanding experiences and meanings rather than measuring outcomes.
  • Instead of "Does social media affect mental health?" (closed-ended), the question should be "How do teenagers perceive the impact of social media on their emotional well-being?"

Incorporating Literature & Theory

• Researchers use past studies and theories to frame their research to justify it and inform possible methods.
• Theories provide a lens for interpreting data such as social constructivism and grounded theory.

Developing a Conceptual Framework

• It is a visual or structured representation of the concepts in a study and their relationships to guide data collection and ensure theoretical coherence.
• The framework can be deductive, based on existing theory, or inductive, emerging from data.

Selecting Research Methods

• Methods must align with research questions.
• In-depth interviews explore personal perceptions and socio-cultural contexts to understand how young adults make sense of moving out of their parental home.
• Focus groups explore shared perspectives and group interactions while examining community needs to improve sustainable energy use.
• Observations understand what people do, how they act, and interact, for example, how primary school environments influence children's learning behaviors.
• Document analysis examines existing texts, media, or online data to study how social media influences political opinions.

Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning

• Deductive reasoning starts with a theory, then collects data to test it.
  • Example: A study uses a burnout model and tests it through interviews.
• Inductive reasoning collects data first, then builds a theory from patterns.
  • Example: A researcher studies refugees' mental health experiences allowing themes to emerge from interviews.

Other Key Notes

• Hypotheses are only used in quantitative research, as qualitative research is exploratory.
• Reflexivity is crucial, and researchers must reflect on how their biases shape the study.
• Research questions are broad and guide the study.
• Interview questions are detailed, in-depth, and participant-friendly

Importance of Conceptualization and Operationalization

• Conceptualization defines what key concepts mean.
• Operationalization determines how these concepts will be measured or studied.
  • Example: Studying "stress in students" might involve interviews on coping strategies, observations in study spaces, and focus groups about shared experiences.

Conceptualization & Concept Maps

• Conceptualization defines and structures key concepts in research.
• Operationalization turns abstract concepts into measurable elements for data collection.
• A concept map is a visual representation of the relationships between concepts.
• Triangulation increases validity by using multiple methods.

Sampling in Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

• Qualitative research focuses on rich, detailed information, while quantitative aims for statistical generalization.
• Qualitative researchers deliberately select participants based on relevance, rather than using random sampling.
• The goal is to obtain deep insights from people with relevant experiences rather than generalizing to a large population.

Participant Recruitment

• Participant recruitment must ensure diversity with varied perspectives and relevance with participants who have direct experience and access to meaningful data.

Types of Sampling

• Purposive sampling selects participants based on criteria aligned with the research topic, requires a clear definition of the target population, and has a goal of information richness.
  • It fits within the interpretivist paradigm.
  • Purposive sampling involves defining the study population and refining the sample during data collection.
• Snowball sampling is utilized for hard-to-reach populations by asking current participants or key informants for referrals.
  • Because participants are often from the same social network, it can reduce diversity.
• Convenience sampling is based on availability and ease of access and is useful for pilot studies or early-stage research.
• Theoretical sampling, an inductive approach, is used in grounded theory research.
  • Sampling evolves based on emerging data, rather than being predefined.

Saturation in Qualitative Research

• Saturation is the point where no new themes or insights emerge, determining the number of participants needed.
• Guidelines suggest 7-20 participants as a rough rule, but it depends on the purpose and focus of the study, homogeneity vs. heterogeneity of the population, data quality, and saturation goal.
• In a study on social media addiction, saturation can be reached after 15 interviews.

Participant Recruitment Strategies

• Building trust is essential for sensitive topics.
• Clear communication describes that participants should understand the study's purpose and their rights.
• Incentives like ethical rewards can encourage participation.
• Community networks such as partnerships help reach participants.
• Multiple recruitment strategies should be used simultaneously to increase efficiency and diversity.
• Gatekeepers are trusted community leaders help recruit participants and ensures cultural appropriateness, access to eligible participants.
  • This may introduce selection bias or coercion.
• This process selects participants from existing databases, allows for diverse sample selection, and requires permission to access data.
• Formal and informal networks involve recruiting through connections related to the study and offer a trusted entry point.
  • It can take significant time and effort.
• Advertising involves public invitations to self-identify and contact researchers to reach motivated participants.
  • This has a low response rate and hard to meet sampling criteria.
• Mixed-method recruitment involves recruiting from previous surveys or focus groups.
  • It builds rapport and ensures diverse participation.

Step-by-Step Approach to Recruitment

• To approach recruitment, it is necessary to define the study population, familiarize yourself with the community, consider ethical issues and researcher positionality, and determine the first point of contact.
• Communication should explain found them and why they were contacted and clarify study goals, participant expectations, and incentives.
• Researchers should send information sheets, schedule an introductory meeting, get consent, and begin data collection.

Tips for First Contact

• In the email or phone call, clearly state how you found the potential participant, use professional yet accessible language, and be transparent about goals and the researcher role.
• Researchers should manage expectations and plan follow-ups.

Purposive Sampling

• It uses selecting participants based on relevance to the study
• Example: Interviewing only diabetics for a study on diet management.

Snowball Sampling

• It uses previously contacted participants to refer others to the study
• Example: A study on drug addiction where initial participants introduce the researcher to others.

Saturation

• The saturation sampling method of data collection is complete when the is the point where no new insights emerge.
• A workplace burnout study shows where, after 20 interviews, no new themes appear.

Final Wrap-Up

• Purposive sampling ensures small, information-rich samples.
• Sampling is an iterative process.
• Recruitment takes time and creativity.
• Ethical considerations are key, and transparency is important.

Ethics in Qualitative Research

• Ethics in qualitative research focuses on protecting participants and ensuring no harm, maintaining integrity through ethical and transparent research, and ensuring fairness by avoiding exploitation or bias.
• The researcher should prioritize beneficence, justice, and respect for autonomy.

Ethical Issues in the Design Cycle

• Beneficence means research should be socially valuable and not harm participants.
• Justice means researchers should avoid exploiting vulnerable populations.
• Participant recruitment must be handled with respect, ensuring the process is fair and ethical.

Ethical Issues in Data Collection

• Participation must be voluntary, with no coercion.
• Informed consent makes sure that participants understand the study's purpose, risks, and benefits before agreeing to take part.

Ethical Concerns in Interviewing

• Researchers should inform participants how they were found.
• The reliable use of interview protocols ensures consistency and fairness.
• There should be minimizing harm by handling emotions carefully and to build rapport.
• Rapport can be fostered by no judging, avoiding anxiety, and fostering trust.

Confidentiality

• Consider whether collecting personal identifiers is necessary.
• Protect participant identities, especially in sensitive studies.
  • Identifiable details should be removed from transcripts before coding and analysis.

Ethical Issues in Data Analysis

• Researchers should respect participants by maintaining contact, offer debriefing after participation, quote responsibly to ensure participant voices are represented truthfully, rather than reflecting researcher biases, and address anonymity.

Reflexivity & Positionality

• Reflexivity is reflecting on how the researcher's own biases, background, and experiences influence the research process.
• Positionality is the researcher's position relative to the participants, such as being an insider or outsider.
• Being reflexive enhances data quality by ensuring the researcher is aware of biases and power dynamics in interactions and to enhance data quality through positionality.

Data Collection

• Consider power dynamics between the researcher and participants.
• Determine the necessity of disclosing certain background information or whether it might influence responses.
• Ensure participants feel safe to provide valid and open responses and feel comfortable sharing experiences without pressure.

Qualitative Research

• Ethics is an ongoing process, and ethical considerations apply throughout the design, data collection, and analysis stages.
• Research practices are influenced by societal norms, power structures, and expectations.

Why Reflexivity Matters

• Being aware of reflexivity and positionality strengthens research integrity and improves data quality.

In-Depth Interviews

• In-depth interviews are one-on-one conversations to explore individual perspectives, experiences, and motivations.
• They are semi-structured, using a guide, but responses shape the conversation.
• The interview is not a two-way exchange, the interviewee shares while the researcher probes and encourages discussion to generate rich, detailed, and personal insights may not emerge in surveys or focus groups.

Types of Interview Topics

• In-depth interviews are used to understand individual decision-making processes and when exploring sensitive topics that require confidentiality, to gain insight into personal beliefs, emotions, and experiences, and when needing to explore the social, economic, or cultural context of a person's life.

The Interview Guide

• The interview guide is structured with open-ended questions and used to allow depth and follow-up probing.
• It is crucial to pilot-test and adaptable for a natural flow of conversation.

How to Conduct an Interview

• Building rapport by establishing trust through active listening and empathy is crucial.
• The interviewer should use motivational probing by encouraging detailed responses.
• Reflecting on subjectivity should be done with regard to the researcher's identity and biases because they can impact the interview.

The Interview Process

• A smooth and comfortable is necessary to close the interview.
• An interview provides deep and personal insights and is effective for exploring sensitive or complex topics. Offers flexibility in questioning, can be time-consuming, and the skills needed for building rapport and probing.
  • Focus groups lack group validation compared to focus groups in interview settings.

Qualitative Research Methods

• An in-depth interview is a one-on-one qualitative research method used to explore personal experiences and perspectives.
  • Example: Interviewing a single mother about her experiences with healthcare access.
• A trust-based relationship between interviewer and interviewee that facilitates open communication in interview.
  • Example: An interviewer uses small talk to make the participant feel comfortable.
• Probing is encouraging deeper responses by asking follow-up questions.
  • Example: Asking, "Can you tell me more about that?" after a participant shares an experience.

Focus Group Discussions

• A focus group discussion involves 6-8 pre-selected participants and is led by a trained moderator to gain a range of perspectives on a topic in a social, interactive setting and discussion.
• The moderator guides the discussion while allowing others to build on each other's responses.
• The responses can provide diverse insights as participants react to and refine each other's ideas in both exploratory research when little is known about a topic and to understand social norms, attitudes, and community perspectives.

Research Design

• Focus groups allow to evaluate programs, services, or interventions and in designing or contextualizing quantitative research.

Developing The Discussion Guide

• The discussion guide begins with broad, open-ended questions and moves to specific topics, requires translation, and needs to also be pilot-tested.

How to Conduct Focus Groups

• Managing group dynamics, keeping discussions balanced, and encouraging participation are necessary to conduct a good foucs group.
• The group composition should include diverse perspectives from participants that have relevant shared characteristics and should be held in a space suitable for the size required.
• Participants should probe each other's ideas, leading to unexpected insights.

Avoiding The Deference Effect

• The deference effect happens when participants say what they think the moderator wants to hear, and emphasizes that all opinions are valued
  • Encourage both positive and negative viewpoints and not express their own stance.
• Strength include efficient for gathering multiple perspectives at once, encourages interactive discussion, and can generate unexpected insights through group debate.
• Limitations include some participants becoming too silent or dominant, social pressures influencing responses, and not suitable for sensitive topics.

How Focus Groups Work

• A focus group discussion is intended for 6-8 participants.
• A moderator with the skill set of a facilitator who is able to guide a focus group is crucial.
• A group should feature a balance discussion, the way participants interact, influence, and respond to each other in a focus group setting.

How To Collect Data

• One should use a logical flow, creates rapport, uses questions that stimulate empathy, and focuses on behaviors

Interview Guide

• Includes the focus on and exploration of individual experiences, requires strong rapport, and explains personal narratives.

Focus Group Discussion

• Includes generating a range of attitudes and community norms, requires managing groups, and the identification of social values.
• Interviews allow for the exploration of individual topics, where focus groups allow for many general explorations.
• The design for each method of data collection should have an open-ended method that builds rapport, and ensures good planning.

Textual Data Analysis

• Narrative: A focus on all types of story telling in data
• Discourse: A focus on all the types of dialogue
• Coding: The action of sifting through data to explain trends

Data Collection

• All sources of data should be transcribed, translated accurately, and any identifying information must be marked to protect subject identity.

Important Coding Information

• Coding gives data definition, should be based in themes, and there is no set needed quantity.

Data Organization

• A code book should be created.
• Coding should have clear definitions.
• Analytical CAQDAS software is useful in organizing data collection, if used should still be inspected to ensure code accuracy.

Transcription

• Transcription and coding help ensures reliability in data
• Coding ethics protect code validity

Data Analysis

• Inductive looks at themes while deductive reviews existing theory.
• Coding is used in analytic processing of collected data to see if there are patterns in collected qualitative information. Each analysis has a differing level of focus on the data used.

Data Analysis

• Data is both reviewed to explore more minute trends (zoom in), and to see overarching themes (zoom out).
• The level of review has two factors: quotes that were used by cited people, collected tones, and speech patterns.

Coding in Qualitative Research

• Coding should include labels representing different topics or concepts relating to the research goals.

Thick Description

• Data that include context, emotions, and meanings.

Qualitative Research Cycle

• Encompasses design, data collection, and analysis.

Ways of Viewing Analysis

• Emic means viewing from inside, and etic is viewing from outside.

Research Guidelines

• Research is iterative from design to collection, and is strengthened through various sources.
• One should ensure ethics are followed in selection. Key aspects of research should be clear to focus research and data.

Recruitment

• Has to create a basis for key conceptualization and should be ethical when dealing with vulnerable demographics that may be involved.
• It should adhere to standards of beneficence (reducing harm), confidentiality, respect, and be transparent on research goals.
• In action, key coding ensures validity in data through organized content, transcription, and should involve those experienced in working with interviews. This should also include accurate and non-coercive data recording. Researchers should always be respectful.

Respecting Participant Rights

• Researchers should address the needs to remove identifiers, and not impose on their safety when asking questions on topics the subjects may be sensitive to.