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• Seismic activity refers to the Earth's movement

The Earth's Interior Structure

• The Earth has three layers: the crust, mantle, and core
• The crust (0-60 km thick) comprises continental and oceanic crust
• The mantle (~2,900 km thick) consists of semi-molten rock (magma)
• The core is made of iron and nickel and is divided into an outer liquid core which is responsible for Erath's magnetic field, and a solid inner core

Plate Tectonics & Continental Drift

• The Earth's crust is divided into seven major tectonic plates that move a few millimeters per year
• These plates are moved by convection currents in the mantle

Continental Drift Theory (Alfred Wegener, 1912)

• Wegener proposed that continents were once joined as Pangea
• Pangea later split apart

Evidence Supporting Continental Drift

• The coastlines of South America and Africa match like puzzle pieces
• Similar mountain formations (e.g., Appalachian & Caledonian Mountains) exist on different continents
• Identical fossils (e.g., Mesosaurus) on separate continents indicate they were once connected
• Glacial deposits in warm regions indicate past positions near the South Pole
• New crust forms at mid-ocean ridges, pushing continents apart
• Earthquakes & volcanoes occur mostly at plate boundaries

Types of Plate Boundaries

• Divergent (Constructive) Boundaries: plates move apart to create mid-ocean ridges.
• Convergent (Destructive) Boundaries: plates collide, causing subduction of denser oceanic plates, it creates volcanoes an trenches. The Andes Mountains are an example.
• Collision Zones: two continental plates collide, forming mountain ranges such as the Himalayas; earthquakes occur instead of volcanic activity
• Transform (Conservative) Boundaries: plates slide past each other, earthquakes occur e.g. San Andreas Fault in California.

Volcanoes

• Formation of Volcanoes: magma rises through cracks, pressure builds, and lava cools, forming a cone.

Types of Volcanoes

• Active volcanoes erupt frequently e.g., Mount Etna in Italy
• Dormant volcanoes are temporarily inactive but may erupt again
• Extinct volcanoes no longer erupt e.g., Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa.

Volcanic Hazards & Benefits

• Benefits include fertile soil, geothermal energy, tourism, and mineral formation
• Hazards include loss of life, property destruction, lahars, ash clouds, lava flows, and gas emissions

Predicting Volcanic Eruptions

• Scientists monitor small earthquakes, temperature increases, and gas emissions

Earthquakes

• An earthquake is the shaking of the Earth's crust due to plate movements

Key Earthquake Terms

• Focus is the underground point of origin
• Epicenter is the surface point directly above the focus
• Seismic Waves are energy released from the focus, causing ground shaking

How Earthquakes Are Measured

• The Richter Scale measures magnitude (energy released) from 1 to 10.
• The Mercalli Scale measures damage caused, ranked from I (minor) to XII (total destruction).

Earthquake Hazards

• Immediate hazards include building collapse, fires, deaths, and landslides
• Long-term hazards include homelessness, shortages, economic loss, and disease outbreaks

Seismic Activity in the Mediterranean Region

Italy

• Italy is home to active volcanoes like Mount Etna and Mount Vesuvius
• The African Plate collides with the Eurasian Plate, causing earthquakes
• Famous earthquakes include the 1980 Irpinia Earthquake (2,735 deaths) and the 2009 L'Aquila Earthquake (309 deaths)

Greece

• Greece is the most seismically active country in Europe
• Earthquakes measuring 5.0+ occur approximately every 18 days
• A major earthquake: 1881 Khios Earthquake caused 3,550 deaths

Turkey

• 92% of Turkey is earthquake-prone due to the collision of the Arabian, African, and Eurasian Plates
• The deadliest earthquake: 1939 Erzincan Earthquake killed 160,000 people

The Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle)

• The hydrological cycle is the continuous movement of water through different states and locations

Main Stages of the Water Cycle

• Evaporation: water from the oceans, lakes, and rivers changes into water vapor due to the sun's heat
• Transpiration: plants release water vapor into the atmosphere
• Condensation: water vapor cools and forms clouds
• Precipitation: water falls back to Earth as rain, snow, sleet, or hail
• Collection: water is absorbed into the ground or flows back to water bodies

Sources of Freshwater in the Maltese Islands

• Runoff: rainwater that does not infiltrate the ground and flows into watercourses
• Catchment Areas: land areas where water collects for rivers, lakes, etc.
• Water Table and Aquifers: underground water trapped between layers of rock.
• Springs: natural groundwater overflow due to cracks in rocks.
• Desalination Plants: facilities that convert seawater into drinking water using reverse osmosis.
• Sewage Treatment Plants: treats wastewater to remove pollutants and create "New Water" for irrigation.

Aquifers in Malta

Types of Aquifers

• Perched Aquifer is above Blue Clay layers that are impermeable, and is used for farming irrigation
• Mean-Sea-Level Aquifer collects water above seawater and is used for domestic water supply.

Importance of Aquifers

• Biodiversity: springs provide habitats for plants and animals.
• Ecology: groundwater sustains valleys and river ecosystems.
• Agriculture: provides water for irrigation, especially during dry seasons.

Reverse Osmosis & Sewage Treatment

• Reverse Osmosis: a desalination process that removes salt from seawater.
• Reverse osmosis plants provide potable drinking water.
• Sewage Treatment removes harmful substances from wastewater
• Sewage Treatment Plant treats sewage and recycles over of the water for agriculture and industry.

Stages of Treatment

• Primary Treatment removes solids and suspended particles
• Secondary Treatment involves bacteria breaking down organic matter
• Tertiary Treatment removes nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus
• Disinfection kills bacteria using chlorine or UV radiation.
• New Water Production recycles wastewater for irrigation.

Water Sources & Pro's and Cons

• Reverse Osmosis is reliable but energy-intensive and expensive
• Water Tables are renewable but can be over-extracted and polluted
• Sewage Treatment helps recycles the water, however it can't be used for drinking due to containing excess salt
• Boreholes are efficient but lead to lower water quality.
• Dams offer storage but suffer from evaporation
• Cisterns are sustainable but provide limited and require maintenance.

Threats to Malta's Water Resources

• Less Rainfall: climate change reduces rainfall, leading to longer droughts which increases reliance on desalination plants
• Over-Extraction: excessive pumping lowers water tables, resulting in saltwater intrusion
• Pollution: excessive fertilizers cause eutrophication, harming aquatic life; heavy metals and agricultural runoff contaminate groundwater.

Water Conservation Methods

How Individuals Can Conserve Water

• Use water-efficient appliances
• Take shorter showers and avoid running taps unnecessarily
• Reuse rainwater for irrigation

Government & Community Initiatives

• Educate the public on water conservation
• Prevent illegal water extraction from boreholes
• Improve infrastructure to prevent leaks and water loss

Flooding in Malta

• Floodplains are low-lying areas near rivers or coastlines prone to flooding

Causes of Flooding in Malta

• Low-lying and flat land areas are easily flooded e.g., Msida, Qormi, and Marsaxlokk
• Heavy Rainfall overwhelms drainage systems
• Deforestation reduces natural water absorption
• Urbanization & Roads prevent rainwater infiltration

Flood Prevention Measures

• Urban Planning: stricter zoning laws and afforestation.
• Drainage Systems: regular culvert maintenance.
• Early Warning Systems: alerts for heavy rainfall.
• Reservoirs store rainwater to reduce runoff

Introduction to Politics

• Politics, from the Greek "polis" and "politikon", determines societal organization, power distribution, and decision-making.

Types of Government

• Monarchy: ruled by a hereditary king or queen
• Republic: head of state is elected, often a president, term limits
• Democracy: government elected by citizens, citizens have rights
• Dictatorship: one person or a small group holds absolute power, no free elections

Comparisons Between Government Types

• Democracy and Republic are similar: leaders are elected, and citizens participate in governance.
• Monarchy and Dictatorship is similar: often ruled by one leader, but a monarchy can be constitutional with limited power.
• Democracy vs. Dictatorship: democracy promotes fair elections and pluralism while dictatorships lack citizen participation and they suppress opposition

Types of Democracy

• Direct Democracy: citizens vote directly on laws and decisions, e.g., Ancient Greece.
• Representative Democracy: citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf.
• Democracy and Active Citizenship

Key Principles of Democracy

• Pluralism: acceptance of different opinions and interests.
• Rule of Law: everyone is equal under the law.
• Active Citizenship: engagement with civic rights and responsibilities e.g., voting, taxes, and respecting laws

Benefits and Challengers of Active Citizenship

• Benefits: citizens' opinions are heard, government is accountable, stronger social bonds
• Challenges: barriers to participation, low turnout, balancing rights and responsibilities.

Political Parties & Ideologies

• A political party is an organization representing societal interests and beliefs in politics

The Political Spectrum

• Communism: state-controlled economy, classless society e.g., Soviet Union
• Socialism: mixed economy, wealth redistribution
• Greens: focus on environmental conservation
• Conservatism: respects traditional values and institutions.
• Fascism: extreme right-wing ideology, nationalism e.g., Nazi Germany.
• Pressure Groups & Their Role in Democracy

Pressure Groups

• Organizations that influence government, not seeking election
• They lobby, petition, protest and reach out to the media.
• Pressure groups enhance public participation and hold government accountable
• Some groups may represent minority interests, corrupt, or cause instability.

The Three Pillars of Democracy

• Legislative (Law-Making): Parliament creates/amends laws, MPs represent citizens, make key decisions
• Executive (Administration & Implementation): President is head of state, Prime Minister & Cabinet execute laws
• Judiciary (Law Enforcement & Justice): Courts apply justice, judges/magistrates operate independently

Democratic Representation (Local, National & EU Levels)

• General elections held every 5 years; citizens vote for MPs
• The party with the majority of votes forms the government.
• In 2020: Malta implemented the Gender Corrective Mechanism, ensuring 40% representation of both genders in Parliament

Local Government (Local Councils)

• Established in '93: 68 Local Councils manage local affairs.
• They name roads, plan traffic, maintain public gardens, handle local infrastructure.

National vs. Local Government

• National: controls country, creates laws, led by the Prime Minister
• Local: manages towns/villages, implements local measures, led by a Mayor

Maltese Constitution and Political Development

• During the British colonial period, Malta was governed by a British Governor
• The Admiralty (Navy), Army, and Royal Air Force strategically used Malta
• Its fortress economy prioritizes military investments (barracks, hospitals, fortifications)

Landmarks in Political and Constitutional Rights

• Advisory Council introduced in 1835 with British & Maltese members
• Rights to vote where given in 1849 to wealthy, educated Maltese men
• Universal Male Suffrage given in 1939, to all men over 21
• Universal Suffrage in 1947 allowed all citizens to vote
• British press restrictions were removed in '35

Sette Guigno Riots (1919), and the 1921 Constitution

• Economic hardship led to the Sette Giugno Riots (June 7, 1919); British marines killed four civilians
• The Constitution, gave Malta some limited level of self-government

The Language Question

• The Language Question was over Italian vs. English as the official language
• It promoted the formation of the Reform Party (pro-English) and the Anti-Reform Party (pro-Italian)
• English replacing Italian in administration in 1936

Constitutional Milestones

• Malta became a sovereign nation-state in '64
• In 1974 Head of State shifted from the British Queen to a Maltese President.
• The British base was closed down in '79 which marked Freedom Day

The European Union

• Malta joined the EU in '04

The Origins of the European Union

• The EU is an economic and political union to promote peace after World War II

The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)

• The ECSC was proposed by Jean Monnet and Robert Schuman
• It united European industries and prevent war, '51 (Treaty of Paris), six members

The European Economic Community (EEC)

• The EEC was formed with the Treaty of Rome (1957), focusing on free movement

The European Union (EU) Formation

• In '92 the Treaty of Maastricht created the EU with a Euro currency
• It evolved beyond economics, addressing security, social policies, and human rights

The Values of the European Union

• The EU promotes peace, democracy and the rule of law under Treaty of Lisbon

The Euro's impact

• 19 EU members of the EU use the Euro
• The Euro (€) lowers exchange costs, brings price transparency, strong stability, and loss of financial autonomy

The Institutions of the European Union

• The European Parliament elected every 5 years, sharing law-making power with the EU Council
• Approves the EU budget and supervises the EU Commission
• Council of the European Union represents national governments
• They decide on laws, budget, and foreign policies

The European Commission

• It is composed of one commissioner per contry
• OVerssees the EU budget and international relations

Malta in the European Union

• Malta joined the EU in '04 and in '08 Malta adopeted the Euro

EU Membership

• Malta had benefits from the EU such as trade, financial support , the freedom to work, study and travel in the EU as well as consumer & environmental protections
• Malta faced Challenges from EU membership; Loss of soverienty, migration and culture

EU Opportunities for Young People

• Student exchanging
• Job searching
• Research and innovation funding

Environmental and Heritage Conservation

• EU promotes European biodiversity
• EU restored historical sites

Ecosystems

• An ecosystem is a community of plants, animals, and microorganisms interacting with each other and their environment.

Key aspects of an Ecosystem

• Biotic factors: living organisms like plants, animals etc.
• Abiotic factors: climate and water
• Biomass: total living mass in that area

Energy Flow and a Food Chain

• The energy for ecosystems is initially solar
• Trophic levels in a food chain are producers, primary, secondary and tertiary consumers, and decomposers.
• Food webs are interconnected food chains.

Recycling of Nutrients

• An ecosystem relies on the recycling of nutrients
• Key nutrients include calcium, carbon, and nitrogen

Ecosystems in Malta

Habitats

• Steppe (Steppa): Result of degraded ecosystems due to grazing, features wild grass
• Garigue (Xagħri): Maltese habitat with drought-resistant plants
• Maquis (Makkja): dense shrubland in valleys including Carob, Olive, and Wild Fig trees
• Woodland (Masġar): rare due to deforestation that has Aleppo Pines and Evergreen Oaks
• Sand Dunes (Għaram tar-Ramel): beaches at Ramla l-Ħamra (Gozo)
• Marshland (Wetlands & Salt Marshes): brackish water habitats
• Valley Watercourses (Il-Widien): trees

Biodiversity in Malta

Describing Speicies in Malta

• Endemic species: only found in Malta
• Indigenous species -Native to Malta but also found elsewhere
• Endangered species: at risk of extinction.

Threats to Biodiversity

• Habitat Destruction: Urban expansion, deforestation
• Invasive Species: disrupt ecosystems
• Hunting and Overfishing: illegal bird trapping overfishing
• Pollution & Illegal Dumping plastics chemicals fertilizers destroy natural habitats
• Climate Change: rising temperatures affect ecosystems

Conservation Efforts

• Natural or Marine Conservation Areas
• Legal protection for species
• Funding for conservation projects
• Public awareness & education campaigns.

Solutions to Protect Ecosystems

• Establish more protected areas and reforestation
• Promote recycling and reduce pollution
• Control hunting and illegal fishing.
• Educate the public on biodiversity conservation

Weather and Climate

• Weather: short-term atmospheric conditions, factors are temperature and precipitation
• Climate: long-term weather conditions e.g., how they effect vegetation and wildlife

Key Elements of Weather

• Temperature measures how heat
• Precipitation includes rain, snow and fog etc.
• Wind Direction brings either warm or cold wind
• Cloud Cover affects how cloudy it is

Measuring Wheather

• Thermometer placed away from sunlight
• Rain Guage collects precipitation
• Wind Vane determines wind direction
• Anemometer- Measures wind speed
• Barometer - Recorsd atmospheric pressure

Factors Affecting Climate

• Latitude: equator receives direct sunlight, poles receive less
• Altitude: temperature drops by 1°C per 100m higher
• Coastal: areas milder, inland: hot/cold seasons
• Prevailing winds: warm winds warm and cold bring cold

Types of Rainfall

• Relief Rainfall: occurs when moist air rises over mountains
• Convectional Rainfall occurs when the ground heats up, causeing rainfall
• Frontal Rainfall: warm air meets cold air

Climatic Regions

• Mediterranean: hot, dry summers, cool, wet winters e.g. Southern Europe/California
• Equatorial Rainforest: hot, humid all year, heavy rainfall e.g. Amazon/Congo

Global Climate Change

• The Earth's atmosphere traps heat
• Greenhouse gases prevent heat from escaping, leading to more warming.
• Main contributors: carbon dioxide (from fossil fuels and deforestation), CFCs (aerosols, refrigerators), methane (animal waste), nitrous oxides (agriculture)

Effects of global warming

• Rising sea levels
• Extreme weather events (hurricanes, droughts)
• Desert expansion and species extinction.

International Agreements

• Agreements in the 20th century limited emissions

Depletion in the Ozone Layer

• The UV rays are absorbed by oxygen in the stratopshere

Causes of the Ozone Layer

• Foam plastics
• Refrigerators
• Cleaning Products
• Hair Sprays

Individual steps

• Reduction steps to globaly ban production

How Individuals Can Help Reduce Climate Change

• Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, reduce waste
• Reduce Energy, use insulation and turn off lights
• Public transport and car pooling can lower pollution
• Energy efiicient products

Plant Trees

• Reduce CO2 and Increase Oxygen

Renewable and Sustanable

• Education

Quarrying and its impact in Malta

• Rock extraction from the ground for construction purposes.
• Softstone Quarrying and Hardstone Quarrying

Environmental Impact

• Air and water pollution
• Noise Pollution
• Destruction to the Environment
• Habitat Destruction

Sustainable quarrying

• Repurposing
• Agriculture
• Parks

Non renewable fuel

• Renewable sources cannot replent

• Fossil Fuels are one time use

• Coal, used for dioxide and suffur

• Oil used for transportation

• Natural Gas, used for emissions and waste

Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels

• Air polution

• Global Warmin

• Ecosysteams

• They are sustainable and can be used repeatedly without depletion.

• Main sources: wind, sea, and solar

Types of Renewable Energy

• Wind is an Advantage but noise and a limited reasources
• Solar, Malta sun shines and converts to electricity ,solar panels and furnacers, good but unreliable
• Hydro electricity , dams and water

Types of Energy Sources

• Wind
• Biomass used organic waste for biogas

Environmental Impact

• Reduces and increases enerdy

EU and Malta for Green goals

• EU targets EU green deals

• 12.2% 2012

• Goals increased in 2021

• Goals Increased in 1931

Enviomental pollution in Malta

• Industrial waste
• Trafic and PowerStation

Effectd

• Disessese and Global warming, Agri waste
• Soil degredation

Maltes Transport

• Factors of distances , the longer the more tiring
• Time management for travelling

Types of Trasportation

• car flexible, bus effectiive
• Ferry for short distances

Main Airports

• Fastet but expensive
• The most is mulit transportation

Challanges in Maltes Transports

• The Loss of agri culture
• Economic issues
• Travel and cost

Transpiratition the need to devisy

• Malta Internaltion airports for travel purposes

Cruise Ships

• Ports and Tourist

Trasport systems

• Water and fast ferrys.
• Low polution
• Electric Vechicals

Metro System

• Annoucing the date system
• 1968 historical transports (donkeys)

1975

• car was needed for mobility