Seismic Activity: The Earth's Structure, Plate Tectonics, and Earthquakes PDF

Seismic Activity" The Earth's Interior Structure The Earth consists of three main layers, similar to the structure of a layered chocolate: 1. Crust – The outermost solid layer (0-60 km thick), consisting of continental crust (land masses) and oceanic crust (denser and found beneath oceans)...

Seismic Activity" The Earth's Interior Structure The Earth consists of three main layers, similar to the structure of a layered chocolate: 1. Crust – The outermost solid layer (0-60 km thick), consisting of continental crust (land masses) and oceanic crust (denser and found beneath oceans). 2. Mantle – The thickest layer (2,900 km thick), composed of semi-molten rock (magma). 3. Core – Made of iron and nickel, divided into: a. Outer Core – Liquid layer responsible for Earth's magnetic field. b. Inner Core – Solid due to extreme pressure. Plate Tectonics & Continental Drift The Earth's crust is divided into seven major tectonic plates and several smaller ones. These plates move a few millimeters per year, driven by convection currents in the mantle. Continental Drift Theory (Alfred Wegener, 1912) Wegener proposed that all continents were once joined in a supercontinent called Pangea, which later split apart. Evidence Supporting Continental Drift 1. Fit of Continents – The coastlines of South America and Africa match like puzzle pieces. 2. Geological Similarities – Similar mountain formations exist in different continents (e.g., Appalachian Mountains in North America and Caledonian Mountains in Scotland). 3. Fossil Evidence – Identical fossils (e.g., Mesosaurus) found on separate continents suggest they were once connected.  4. Paleoclimatic Evidence – Glacial deposits in warm regions indicate past positions near the South Pole. 5. Seafloor Spreading – New crust forms at mid-ocean ridges, pushing continents apart. 6. Distribution of Earthquakes & Volcanoes – These occur mostly at plate boundaries. Types of Plate Boundaries 1. Divergent (Constructive) Boundaries a. Plates move apart, creating mid-ocean ridges (e.g., the Mid-Atlantic Ridge). b. Magma rises and cools, forming new oceanic crust. 2. Convergent (Destructive) Boundaries a. Plates collide; the denser oceanic plate subducts beneath a continental plate, forming volcanoes and trenches. b. Example: The Andes Mountains in South America. 3. Collision Zones a. Two continental plates collide, forming mountain ranges (e.g., the Himalayas). b. No volcanic activity, but earthquakes occur. 4. Transform (Conservative) Boundaries a. Plates slide past each other, causing earthquakes (e.g., San Andreas Fault in California). b. No magma formation, so no volcanoes occur. Volcanoes Formation of Volcanoes 1. Magma rises through cracks in the Earth's crust. 2. Pressure builds up and is released explosively during an eruption. 3. Lava cools and solidifies, forming a volcanic cone. Types of Volcanoes Active – Frequently erupts (e.g., Mount Etna, Italy). Dormant – Temporarily inactive but may erupt again. Extinct – No longer erupts (e.g., Mount Kilimanjaro, Africa). Volcanic Hazards & Benefits Benefits Hazards Loss of life & property Fertile soil for agriculture destruction Geothermal energy source Lahars (volcanic mudflows) Tourism & economic boost Ash clouds affecting air travel Formation of minerals & precious Lava flows and gas emissions stones Predicting Volcanic Eruptions Scientists (Volcanologists) monitor: Small earthquakes caused by rising magma. Temperature increases around the volcano. Gas emissions, especially sulfur content. Earthquakes An earthquake is the sudden shaking of the Earth's crust due to plate movements. Key Terms Focus – The underground point where the earthquake originates. Epicenter – The point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus. Seismic Waves – Energy released from the focus, causing ground shaking. How Earthquakes Are Measured 1. Richter Scale – Measures magnitude (energy released) from 1 to 10.  2. Mercalli Scale – Measures damage caused, ranked from I (minor tremor) to XII (total destruction). Earthquake Hazards Immediate Hazards Long-Term Hazards Building collapse Homelessness Fires from damaged power Food & water shortages lines Economic loss & Deaths & injuries unemployment Landslides & tsunamis Disease outbreaks Seismic Activity in the Mediterranean Region Italy Home to active volcanoes such as Mount Etna & Mount Vesuvius. The African Plate collides with the Eurasian Plate, causing frequent earthquakes. Famous earthquakes: o 1980 Irpinia Earthquake – 2,735 deaths. o 2009 L'Aquila Earthquake – 309 deaths. Greece Most seismically active country in Europe. Experiences an earthquake measuring 5.0+ every 18 days. Major earthquake: 1881 Khios Earthquake (3,550 deaths). Turkey 92% of Turkey is an earthquake-prone region due to the collision of the Arabian, African, and Eurasian Plates. Deadliest earthquake: 1939 Erzincan Earthquake (160,000 deaths). Water" The Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle) The hydrological cycle describes the continuous movement of water through different states and locations on Earth. Main Stages of the Water Cycle: 1. Evaporation – Water from oceans, lakes, and rivers changes into water vapor due to the Sun’s heat. 2. Transpiration – Plants release water vapor into the atmosphere. 3. Condensation – Water vapor cools and forms clouds. 4. Precipitation – Water falls back to Earth as rain, snow, sleet, or hail. 5. Collection – Water is absorbed into the ground (infiltration & percolation) or flows back to water bodies (surface runoff). Sources of Freshwater in the Maltese Islands 1. Runoff – Rainwater that does not infiltrate the ground and flows into watercourses. 2. Catchment Areas – Land areas where water collects and drains into a specific water source like a river or lake. 3. Water Table & Aquifers – Underground water trapped between layers of rock. 4. Springs – Natural groundwater overflow due to cracks in rocks. 5. Desalination Plants – Facilities that convert seawater into drinking water using reverse osmosis. 6. Sewage Treatment Plants – Treat wastewater to remove pollutants and create "New Water" for irrigation. Aquifers in Malta Types of Aquifers 1. Perched Aquifer – a. Found above Blue Clay layers, which are impermeable. b. Used for farming irrigation. c. Extracted through boreholes. 2. Mean-Sea-Level Aquifer – a. Water collects above seawater due to its lower density. b. Used for domestic water supply. Importance of Aquifers Biodiversity: Springs provide habitats for plants and animals. Ecology: Groundwater sustains valleys and river ecosystems. Agriculture: Provides water for irrigation, especially during dry seasons. Reverse Osmosis & Sewage Treatment Reverse Osmosis A desalination process that removes salt from seawater using semi-permeable membranes. Reverse osmosis plants in Għar Lapsi, Pembroke, and Ċirkewwa provide potable drinking water. Sewage Treatment Removes harmful substances from wastewater before releasing it into the environment. Sant’Antnin Sewage Treatment Plant treats sewage and recycles over 10% of the water for agriculture and industry. Stages of Treatment: 1. Primary Treatment – Removes solids and suspended particles.  2. Secondary Treatment – Bacteria break down organic matter. 3. Tertiary Treatment – Removes nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus. 4. Disinfection – Kills bacteria using chlorine or UV radiation. 5. New Water Production – Recycled wastewater used for irrigation. Water Sources & Their Pros & Cons Source Advantages Disadvantages Reverse Reliable, provides drinking High energy consumption, expensive Osmosis water Renewable, requires less Water Table Over-extraction, pollution risks treatment Sewage Cannot be used for drinking, contains Recycles water for irrigation Treatment some salt Over-extraction leads to lower water Boreholes Efficient & accessible quality Dams Easy storage for irrigation Evaporation loss, not for drinking water Cisterns Sustainable & free Limited storage, requires maintenance Threats to Malta’s Water Resources 1. Less Rainfall Climate change reduces rainfall, leading to longer droughts. Increased reliance on desalination plants. 2. Over-Extraction Excessive pumping from aquifers lowers water tables, making extraction harder. Results in saltwater intrusion, contaminating freshwater. 3. Pollution Eutrophication: Excessive fertilizers cause nutrient buildup in water, harming aquatic life.  Heavy Metals: Lead, mercury, and industrial waste are toxic pollutants. Agricultural Runoff: Pesticides and chemicals seep into groundwater. Water Conservation Methods How Individuals Can Conserve Water: Use water-efficient appliances. Take shorter showers and avoid running taps unnecessarily. Reuse rainwater for irrigation. Government & Community Initiatives: Educate the public on water conservation. Prevent illegal water extraction from boreholes. Improve infrastructure to prevent leaks and water loss. Flooding in Malta What is a Floodplain? A low-lying area near rivers or coastlines prone to flooding. Causes of Flooding in Malta 1. Flat Land – Low-lying areas like Msida, Qormi, and Marsaxlokk easily flood. 2. Heavy Rainfall – Excess rain overwhelms drainage systems. 3. Deforestation – Less vegetation reduces natural water absorption. 4. Urbanization & Roads – Concrete and tarmac prevent rainwater infiltration. Flood Prevention Measures: Improved Urban Planning – Stricter zoning laws and afforestation. Better Drainage Systems – Regular maintenance of culverts and storm drains. Early Warning Systems – Alerts for heavy rainfall and potential floods.  Increased Reservoirs – Stores rainwater to reduce surface runoff. Politics" Introduction to Politics Politics is derived from the Greek words polis (state) and politikon (people participating in the state). Politics determines how society is organized, how power is distributed, and how decisions affecting citizens are made. Types of Government Type Definition Characteristics Mon Power is hereditary; can be absolute or arch A state ruled by a king or queen. constitutional. y Repu A system where the head of state is Leaders serve for a fixed term. blic elected, usually a president. Dem Citizens have rights to vote, express ocra Government elected by the people. opinions, and participate in governance. cy Dicta One person or a small group holds No free elections; often suppresses torsh absolute power. opposition. ip Comparisons Between Government Types Democracy and Republic: Leaders are elected, and citizens participate in governance. Monarchy and Dictatorship: Often ruled by one leader, but a monarchy can be constitutional with limited power.  Democracy vs. Dictatorship: Democracy promotes fair elections and pluralism, while dictatorships lack citizen participation and suppress opposition. Democracy and Active Citizenship Types of Democracy 1. Direct Democracy – Citizens vote on laws and decisions directly (e.g., Ancient Greece). 2. Representative Democracy – Citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. Key Principles of Democracy Pluralism: Acceptance of different opinions and interests. Rule of Law: Everyone is equal under the law. Active Citizenship: Citizens have rights and responsibilities (e.g., voting, paying taxes, respecting laws). Benefits & Challenges of Active Citizenship Benefits Challenges Barriers to participation (time, Citizens’ opinions are heard. resources). Government accountability Low youth engagement in politics. improves. Encourages social cohesion. Balancing rights with responsibilities. Political Parties & Ideologies A political party is an organization that represents different societal interests and beliefs. The Political Spectrum Ideology Description Communi State-controlled economy, classless society (e.g., Soviet Union). sm Socialism Mixed public-private economy, wealth redistribution. Greens Focuses on environmental protection and sustainability. Conservati Preserves traditional values and institutions. sm Extreme right-wing ideology, nationalism, authoritarianism (e.g., Nazi Fascism Germany). Pressure Groups & Their Role in Democracy What Are Pressure Groups? Organizations that influence government policies without seeking election. Use lobbying, petitions, media campaigns, and protests. Examples of Pressure Groups in Malta Category Examples Environmental Flimkien Għal Ambjent Aħjar, Zibel, Nature Trust Malta Cultural Fondazzjoni Wirt Artna, Din l-Art Ħelwa, Inizjamed Aditus Foundation, Women’s Rights Foundation, Socio-Political Repubblika Advantages & Disadvantages of Pressure Groups Advantages Disadvantages Can cause political instability if protests turn Enhance public participation. violent. Hold the government Some groups may represent only minority accountable. interests. Influence policy-making. Corrupt or intimidating methods may be used. The Three Pillars of Democracy 1. Legislative (Law-Making) a. Parliament creates and amends laws. b. Members of Parliament (MPs) represent citizens and approve budgets. c. The Cabinet (Prime Minister & Ministers) takes key policy decisions. 2. Executive (Administration & Implementation) a. The President is the head of state (ceremonial role). b. The Prime Minister & Cabinet execute laws and manage government functions. 3. Judiciary (Law Enforcement & Justice) a. Courts ensure justice and law enforcement. b. Judges and magistrates operate independently from the government. Democratic Representation (Local, National & EU Levels) Parliamentary Representation General elections are held every 5 years. Citizens vote for MPs from 13 electoral districts. The party with the majority of votes forms the government. The Gender Corrective Mechanism (2022) ensures 40% representation of both genders in Parliament. Local Government (Local Councils) Established in 1993 to decentralize power from the national government. 68 Local Councils (54 in Malta, 14 in Gozo) manage town and village affairs. Duties include: o Naming roads and planning traffic schemes. o Maintaining public gardens & playing fields. o Handling local infrastructure & community projects. National vs. Local Government National Government Local Government  Controls the entire country. Manages a specific town or village. Implements local policies & community Creates national laws & policies. projects. Led by a Mayor & Local Councillors. Led by the Prime Minister & Cabinet. Maltese Constitution and Political Development 1. The British Colonial Administration During the British colonial period, Malta was governed by a British-appointed Governor who oversaw civil administration and defense. The British military presence was strong, with the Admiralty (Navy), Army, and Royal Air Force using Malta as a strategic base. The fortress economy prioritized military-related investments, creating employment but also leading to restricted areas such as barracks, military hospitals (e.g., Bighi Naval Hospital and Mtarfa General Hospital), and fortifications. The Marsa Sports Grounds were also established as a recreation and training facility for British forces. 2. Landmarks in Political and Constitutional Rights Malta's constitutional development saw key milestones: 1835 – Advisory Constitution: Introduced an Advisory Council with both British and Maltese members. 1849 – Right to Vote: Allowed limited voting rights to wealthy, educated Maltese men. 1939 – Universal Male Suffrage: Extended voting rights to all men over 21. 1947 – Universal Suffrage: Extended voting rights to women.  1935 – Freedom of the Press: Removed restrictions on media, allowing greater political discourse. 3. The Sette Giugno Riots (1919) and the 1921 Constitution Economic hardship and unemployment after World War I led to protests on June 7, 1919, where demonstrators attacked British symbols. British marines fired on the crowd, killing four Maltese civilians. In response, the 1921 Amery-Milner Constitution granted self-government, introducing a Legislative Assembly and a Senate, with the Prime Minister heading an elected government. However, this constitution was later revoked due to the Language Question. 4. The Language Question and Its Impact The Language Question revolved around whether English or Italian should be Malta's official language. It led to: The formation of political parties: o Reform Party (Pro-English) wanted English education and governance. o Anti-Reform Party (Pro-Italian) sought to maintain Italian influence. The Keenan Report (1878) criticized the education system, recommending English as the primary language. By 1934, Maltese was declared an official language alongside English, and by 1936, English replaced Italian in administration. 5. 20th & 21st Century Constitutional Milestones 1947 – Universal Suffrage: Allowed all citizens to vote. 1964 – Independence: Malta became a sovereign state on September 21, 1964, after a referendum approved the Independence Constitution. 1974 – Republic of Malta: The role of Head of State shifted from the British Queen to a Maltese President, officially making Malta a Republic. 1979 – Closure of British Base: Britain withdrew its military forces on March 31, 1979, marking Freedom Day.  2004 – EU Membership: Malta joined the European Union on May 1, 2004, integrating into European policies and decision-making. The European Union" 1. The Origins of the European Union The European Union is an economic and political partnership between European countries, established to promote peace, economic stability, and cooperation after World War II. 1.1 The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) Proposed by Jean Monnet and Robert Schuman to unite European industries and prevent war. Established in 1951 (Treaty of Paris) with six founding members: o Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg (BENELUX), Germany, France, Italy. 1.2 The European Economic Community (EEC) Formed with the Treaty of Rome (1957), focusing on free movement of goods, people, services, and capital. 1.3 The Formation of the European Union (EU) The Treaty of Maastricht (1992) officially created the EU, introducing the Single Market and establishing the Euro (2002). The EU evolved beyond economic matters, addressing security, social policies, and human rights. 2. The Values of the European Union The EU promotes peace, human dignity, equality, freedom, democracy, and the rule of law. The Charter of Fundamental Rights (2009, Treaty of Lisbon) guarantees these principles. 3. The Euro and Its Impact The Euro (€) is the official currency of 19 EU member states. Benefits include: Lower exchange costs Price transparency Stronger economic stability Drawbacks include: Loss of financial autonomy Not all economies benefit equally 4. The Institutions of the European Union 4.1 The European Parliament Elected by citizens every 5 years. Shares law-making power with the Council of the EU. Approves the EU budget and supervises the European Commission. 4.2 The Council of the European Union Represents national governments. Rotating presidency every 6 months. Decides on laws, budget, and foreign policies. 4.3 The European Commission The executive branch, proposing and enforcing laws. 27 Commissioners, one per country. Oversees the EU budget and international relations. 5. Malta in the European Union Joined the EU on May 1, 2004, after a referendum (2003). Adopted the Euro in 2008. 5.1 Benefits of EU Membership Trade opportunities Financial aid & development funds Freedom to work, study, and travel in the EU Better consumer rights & environmental protections 5.2 Challenges of EU Membership Loss of sovereignty Migration concerns Cultural and economic shifts 6. EU Opportunities for Young People The EU supports education and employment through: Erasmus+ – Student exchange & training programs. EURES – Job opportunities across Europe. Horizon Europe – Research and innovation funding. 7. Environmental and Heritage Conservation Natura 2000 protects European biodiversity and nature reserves (e.g., Għar Dalam, Filfla). EU funds have restored historical sites like Mdina Fortifications, Valletta, and Fort St. Angelo. Ecosystems" 1. What is an Ecosystem? An ecosystem is a community of plants, animals, and microorganisms interacting with each other and their non-living environment. It includes: Biotic factors (living organisms like plants, animals, fungi). Abiotic factors (non-living elements like soil, water, and climate). Biomass (the total mass of living organisms in a given area). Ecosystems vary in size and depend on energy flow and nutrient recycling for survival. 2. Energy Flow and the Food Chain The Sun is the primary energy source, which plants use for photosynthesis to convert carbon dioxide and water into food. 2.1 Trophic Levels in a Food Chain Producers (Plants & Algae) – Convert sunlight into energy. Primary Consumers (Herbivores) – Eat plants (e.g., rabbits, cows). Secondary Consumers (Carnivores) – Eat herbivores (e.g., foxes, snakes). Tertiary Consumers (Top predators) – Eat secondary consumers (e.g., wolves). Decomposers (Bacteria & Fungi) – Break down dead organisms, returning nutrients to the soil. A food web is a more complex system of interconnected food chains. 3. Recycling of Nutrients Nutrients like calcium, carbon, and nitrogen are cycled through weathering of rocks, plant absorption, and decomposition of dead organisms. 4. Ecosystems in Malta 4.1 Major Maltese Habitats 🌿 Steppe (Steppa) Result of degraded ecosystems due to grazing and fires. Features grass species like Wild Carrot & Fennel. 🌱 Garigue (Xagħri) Most common Maltese habitat. Found in rocky areas, supports drought-resistant plants like Mediterranean Thyme. 🌳 Maquis (Makkja) Dense shrubland in valleys & cliffs. Includes Carob, Olive, and Wild Fig trees. 🌲 Woodland (Masġar) Rare due to deforestation & urbanization. Found in Buskett, with Aleppo Pines & Evergreen Oaks. 🏖️ Sand Dunes (Għaram tar-Ramel) Fragile ecosystems in sandy beaches. Found in Ramla l-Ħamra (Gozo) & Għajn Tuffieħa. 🌊 Marshland (Wetlands & Salt Marshes) Brackish water habitats at Għadira, Simar, and Marsaxlokk. Supports Killifish & Salt-resistant plants. ⛰️ Valley Watercourses (Il-Widien) Rich biodiversity with trees like Poplars & Willows. Threatened by construction, pollution, & water diversion. 5. Biodiversity in Malta 5.1 Endemic vs. Indigenous vs. Endangered Species Endemic species – Found only in Malta (e.g., Maltese Freshwater Crab, Maltese Pyramidal Orchid). Indigenous species – Native to Malta but also found elsewhere (e.g., Carob Tree, Aleppo Pine). Endangered species – At risk of extinction (e.g., Loggerhead Turtle). 5.2 Threats to Biodiversity Habitat Destruction – Urban expansion, deforestation. Invasive Species – Alien plants & animals disrupt ecosystems (e.g., Cape Sorrel). Hunting & Overfishing – Uncontrolled hunting (e.g., illegal bird trapping) and overfishing harm species. Pollution & Illegal Dumping – Plastics, chemicals, & fertilizers destroy natural habitats. Climate Change – Rising temperatures & extreme weather affect ecosystems. 6. Conservation Efforts in Malta 6.1 Nature Reserves & Protected Areas Terrestrial Conservation Areas – Buskett, Wied il-Miżieb, Ballut ta' Marsaxlokk. Marine Conservation Areas – Filfla, Comino, St. Paul’s Islands. 6.2 EU Protection – Natura 2000 Legal protection for endangered habitats & species. Funding for conservation projects. Public awareness & education campaigns. 6.3 Solutions to Protect Ecosystems Establish more protected areas & reforestation. Promote recycling & reduce pollution. Control hunting & illegal fishing. Educate the public on biodiversity conservation. Weather and Climate Understanding Weather and Climate Weather refers to the day-to-day atmospheric conditions of a location, including temperature, humidity, wind, cloud cover, and precipitation. It changes frequently. Climate is the average weather conditions of a location over a long period (usually 30 years), influencing vegetation and wildlife. Key Elements of Weather 1. Temperature – Measures how hot or cold a place is. 2. Precipitation – Includes rain, snow, sleet, hail, mist, and fog. 3. Wind Direction – Wind from the north is cold, while wind from the south is warm. 4. Cloud Cover – Determines the amount of cloudiness in the sky, measured in oktas. Measuring Weather Various instruments are used to collect weather data: Thermometer – Measures temperature, placed away from direct sunlight. Rain Gauge – Collects precipitation, placed in an open area. Wind Vane – Determines wind direction, positioned at high elevations. Anemometer – Measures wind speed. Barometer – Records atmospheric pressure, kept indoors or in a secure location. Factors Affecting Climate 1. Latitude Equator (0° latitude) receives the most direct sunlight, making it hot. Poles receive less sunlight due to the Earth’s curvature, making them colder. 2. Altitude (Elevation Above Sea Level) Temperature drops by 1°C for every 100m increase in altitude. Higher elevations are cooler than lowlands. 3. Distance from the Sea Coastal areas experience milder temperatures because water heats and cools more slowly than land. Inland areas experience hot summers and cold winters. 4. Prevailing Winds Winds that blow over warm surfaces bring warm weather. Winds from cold regions bring cooler temperatures. Types of Rainfall 1. Relief Rainfall Occurs when moist air rises over mountains, cools, and condenses into rain. The leeward side (rain shadow) remains dry. 2. Convectional Rainfall The sun heats the ground, causing warm air to rise. As it cools, cumulonimbus clouds form, producing heavy rain and thunderstorms. 3. Frontal Rainfall When warm air meets cold air, the warm air rises and condenses, leading to rainfall. Climatic Regions of the World 1. Mediterranean Climate Hot, dry summers with similarities to desert conditions. Cool, wet winters, with occasional thunderstorms. Found in Southern Europe, California, South Africa, and parts of Australia. 2. Equatorial Rainforest Climate Hot and humid all year with heavy daily rainfall. No distinct seasons, with consistent temperatures. Found in Amazon Basin (South America) and Congo Basin (Africa). Global Climate Change 1. Greenhouse Effect The Earth’s atmosphere traps heat, similar to a greenhouse. Greenhouse gases prevent heat from escaping, leading to warming. 2. Causes of Global Warming Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) – Emitted from burning fossil fuels and deforestation. CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons) – Found in aerosol sprays, refrigerators, and air conditioners. Methane (CH₄) – Emitted from animal waste and rice farming. Nitrous Oxides (N₂O) – Released from agriculture and fossil fuel combustion. 3. Effects of Global Warming Rising sea levels due to melting ice caps. Flooding of low-lying areas and disappearance of islands. More extreme weather events (hurricanes, droughts). Desert expansion and species extinction. Spread of tropical diseases to new regions. International Agreements 1992 Rio Summit – Aimed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. 1997 Kyoto Protocol – Most nations agreed to limit emissions, though the USA, China, and India delayed participation. Depletion of the Ozone Layer 1. Role of Ozone The ozone layer (O₃) in the stratosphere absorbs harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun.  Excess UV exposure can cause skin cancer, cataracts, and weakened immune systems. 2. Causes of Ozone Depletion CFCs in aerosol sprays, foam plastics, refrigerators, and air conditioners break down ozone molecules. The largest ozone hole forms over Antarctica every spring. 3. Solutions 1990 Global Ban on CFCs aimed to stop ozone destruction. The ozone layer may take a century to fully recover. How Individuals Can Help Reduce Climate Change 1. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle Minimize waste by using recyclable materials. Opt for eco-friendly packaging. 2. Reduce Energy Use Use insulation to lower heating costs. Turn off air conditioning and lights when not needed. 3. Use Public Transport & Carpooling Fewer cars on the road reduce carbon emissions. Walking and cycling help reduce pollution. 4. Choose Energy-Efficient Products Use energy-saving appliances and LED bulbs. Opt for fuel-efficient cars. 5. Plant Trees Trees absorb CO₂ and produce oxygen. 6. Use Renewable Energy Install solar panels to generate electricity. Support wind energy projects. 7. Environmental Education Schools should teach sustainability from an early age. Renewable Energy and Environmental Impact 1. Quarrying and Its Impact in Malta What is Quarrying? Quarrying is the process of extracting rock and stone from the ground for construction purposes. Types of Quarrying in Malta 1. Softstone Quarrying (Globigerina Limestone, "Franka") a. Easier to cut and shape. b. Hardens over time when exposed to air. c. Used in traditional Maltese architecture. d. Example location: Siggiewi. 2. Hardstone Quarrying (Coralline Limestone) a. Drilled and blasted to produce marble-like material, crushed aggregates, and spalls.  b. Used for road construction, concrete mixing, and tile production. c. Example location: Naxxar. Environmental Impact of Quarrying Air pollution – Dust causes respiratory problems. Water pollution – Chemicals and dust contaminate water sources. Noise pollution – Explosions and machinery disturb residents and wildlife. Visual pollution – Quarries leave scars on landscapes. Habitat destruction – Reduces biodiversity and threatens plant and animal species. Sustainable Quarrying and Rehabilitation Unused quarries can be repurposed for: Agriculture and forestry. Wildlife conservation and parks. Water storage facilities. Landfill waste disposal. 2. Non-Renewable Energy Resources What are Non-Renewable Resources? Non-renewable energy sources are finite and cannot be replenished once consumed. Types of Fossil Fuels 1. Coal – Produces carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide, leading to acid rain. 2. Oil – Used for transportation and electricity, but oil spills harm marine life. 3. Natural Gas – Cleaner than coal but still emits greenhouse gases. Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels Air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Contribution to global warming.  Destruction of ecosystems due to oil spills. 3. Renewable Energy: A Sustainable Solution Renewable energy sources are sustainable and can be used repeatedly without depletion. Types of Renewable Energy 1. Wind Energy Generated by wind turbines that convert wind movement into electricity. Wind farms contain multiple turbines. Advantages Free energy source. No greenhouse gas emissions. Can attract tourism. Disadvantages Not constant (some days have little wind). Visual pollution (changes landscapes). Can affect bird migration. Noise pollution from turbines. 2. Solar Energy Malta has abundant sunshine, making solar energy highly viable. Three main uses: 1. Photovoltaic (PV) Cells – Convert sunlight into electricity (like solar panels). 2. Solar Water Heating – Uses black pipes to absorb heat for household hot water. 3. Solar Furnaces – Large mirrors focus sunlight to generate intense heat. Advantages  Free energy source. Reduces electricity bills. No pollution. Disadvantages Doesn’t work at night. Expensive to install. Efficiency depends on weather. 3. Hydroelectric Power Dams trap water to create electricity through turbines. Advantages Reliable source of power. Can store water for later use. Disadvantages Expensive to build. Can destroy habitats and flood areas. 4. Renewable Energy in Malta Current Energy Sources As of 2017, Malta mainly relies on natural gas, with oil as backup. The Malta-Sicily Interconnector allows Malta to import electricity. Renewable Energy Initiatives Solar Energy Photovoltaic systems and solar water heaters are widely used. Solar farms exist in Ta’ Qali and Imselliet (Mġarr).  Wind Energy No wind farms are currently operational in Malta, but feasibility studies are ongoing. Biomass Energy Uses organic waste to generate biogas. 5. Benefits of Renewable Energy in Malta Reduces greenhouse gas emissions. Increases energy independence, reducing reliance on fossil fuel imports. Creates jobs in renewable energy industries. Improves air quality, reducing respiratory diseases. Supports sustainable development for future generations. 6. EU & Malta's Renewable Energy Targets European Union (EU) Goals 2020: Achieved 22% renewable energy share. 2030: New target of 42.5% renewable energy as part of the European Green Deal. Malta’s Energy Goals 2012: Only 2.8% renewable energy usage. 2021: Increased to 12.2%. 2030: Target to reach 11.5% renewable energy in total energy consumption. 2050: Aim for 100% electricity from renewables. 7. Environmental Pollution in Malta 1. Air Pollution Causes: Industrial activity (Mrieħel, Bulebel). Traffic emissions (Marsa). Burning fossil fuels (Delimara Power Station). Effects: Respiratory diseases. Global warming. 2. Water Pollution Causes: Agricultural runoff (Marsascala). Untreated sewage leaks (Sliema). Fish farm pollution (Bugibba, St. Julian’s). Effects: Contaminated drinking water. Harm to marine life. 3. Land Pollution Causes: Illegal dumping. Open landfills. Effects: Soil degradation, reducing agricultural productivity. 4. Noise Pollution Causes: Traffic congestion. Construction and quarrying (e.g., Naxxar, Mosta, Mqabba, Siġġiewi). Effects: Stress and hearing impairment. 5. Visual Pollution Causes: Poor urban planning. Litter and graffiti. Effects: Negative mental health impact. Transport in Malta 1. Factors Influencing Choice of Transport Several factors determine the choice of transport: 1. Distance Long journeys can be tiring and time-consuming. People prefer motorized transport (car, train, plane) for long distances. Shorter routes are often selected for cost efficiency, even if they are longer in distance. 2. Time Travel efficiency is important, especially in urban areas. Traffic congestion increases time wastage. Fast transport modes like trains and planes save time. 3. Cost Some transport modes are expensive to own and operate (e.g., planes, ships). Public transport (buses, trains) is often cheaper than private vehicles. 4. Transportation of Goods Ships and trains are more cost-effective for bulk transport over long distances. Air transport is used for urgent deliveries. 2. Different Modes of Transport Land Transport Car: Flexible but expensive and causes pollution. Bus: Cost-effective but less flexible. Train: Efficient for long distances but limited in Malta. Sea Transport Ferries: Transport passengers and vehicles over short sea routes. Cargo Ships: Used for international trade. Cruise Ships: Bring tourists to Malta. Air Transport Airplanes: The fastest international transport but expensive. Importance of Multiple Transport Modes Improves accessibility and mobility.  Reduces traffic congestion. Boosts economic growth by enhancing trade and tourism. 3. Challenges in Malta’s Transport System A. Environmental Issues Loss of agricultural land (ODZ) due to road expansion. Increase in air pollution leading to acid rain and climate change. Disruption of ecosystems due to road and flyover construction. B. Economic Issues Increased travel time leads to higher fuel costs. High infrastructure costs for road and transport development. Health costs due to traffic pollution. C. Social Issues Traffic congestion causes stress and frustration. Road accidents result in injuries and fatalities. Noise pollution affects the quality of life. 4. Transport in Malta: The Need for Diversification Current Transport Infrastructure Air Transport Malta International Airport (MIA) connects Malta with Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. Sea Transport Grand Harbour & Marsaxlokk handle international cargo. Ferry services operate between Malta, Gozo, and Sicily.  Cruise Ships Valletta is a major stop for Mediterranean cruises, boosting tourism. 5. Improving Malta’s Transport System A. Sea Transport Ferry services reduce road congestion (e.g., Sliema to Valletta). Fast ferries between Malta and Gozo. B. Green Transport 6,000 electric vehicles registered as of March 2022. Government offers up to €12,000 subsidy for EVs. C. Metro System Proposal Announced in October 2021, planned completion in 15–20 years. Three lines covering major areas (Bugibba, Valletta, Birkirkara, Mater Dei, Cospicua). Gozo excluded due to a low population. 6. Historical Development of Transport in Malta 1530–1945: Traditional Transport Early Modes of Transport Horse-drawn carriages for the rich; donkeys and carts for commoners. Omnibus (1857): Horse-drawn carriage seating 16 passengers. Train (1883–1931): Valletta to Rabat; shut down due to low profits. Tram (1904–1929): Valletta to Marsa; replaced by buses. Buses (1905): Became the dominant mode of transport. Gozo Ferry (1921): Connected Malta and Gozo.  Impact on Society Improved connectivity between villages. Encouraged urban expansion beyond Valletta. Increased job opportunities in transportation. 7. Post-1945 Transport Evolution A. Modernization Cars became the most common transport in Malta. Air Malta (1974–2024) provided international air travel (replaced by KM Malta). Ferries expanded for tourism and daily commuting. B. Public Transport 2011: Arriva Malta operated public buses but failed in 2014. 2014: Government nationalized the system and partnered with Alsa. 2022: Public transport became free for all Malta residents. The French Period in Malta (1798–1800) 1. Background: The French Revolution (1789–1799) The French Revolution was a major social and political upheaval in France, leading to the fall of the monarchy and the rise of a republic. Causes of the French Revolution Unfair Social Structure: French society was divided into three estates: o First Estate (Clergy) – Rich and exempt from taxes. o Second Estate (Nobility) – Owned land and avoided taxes. o Third Estate (Commoners) – Paid heavy taxes and suffered from starvation.  Economic Crisis: France faced financial difficulties due to wars and lavish spending by the monarchy. Failed Estates-General (1789): The Third Estate broke away and declared itself the National Assembly, starting the revolution. Storming of the Bastille (14 July 1789): Marked the beginning of the revolution. Execution of King Louis XVI (1793): France became a republic. Key Principles of the French Revolution 1. Liberty – Freedom from monarchy, introduction of representative government. 2. Equality – End of noble and clerical privileges. 3. Fraternity – National unity and patriotism. Impact on Human Rights Inspired equal treatment for all citizens. Introduced freedom of speech, religion, and press. Led to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789). 2. The French Invasion and Occupation of Malta (1798– 1800) Why Did France Invade Malta? Strategic Position – Malta was located in the center of the Mediterranean. Strong Fortifications – Could serve as a military base. Prevention of British or Russian Takeover. Weak Order of St. John – The Knights had lost influence and were deeply in debt. Capture of Malta (June 1798) Napoleon requested permission to dock in Malta’s harbor. Grand Master Hompesch refused full entry, allowing only four ships at a time. Napoleon launched an attack, and the Knights surrendered without resistance. Treaty of Capitulation (12 June 1798) officially handed Malta to the French.  Initial Support from the Maltese Many Maltese welcomed the end of the Knights' rule. Napoleon was seen as a liberator. 3. Napoleon’s Reforms in Malta Napoleon stayed in Malta for six days before continuing to Egypt, leaving General Vaubois in charge. Social Reforms Abolished slavery. Ended noble privileges. Introduced equality before the law. Freedom of press and conscience. Administrative Reforms Divided Malta into 12 districts (municipalities). Established a Government Commission with Maltese members. Confiscated property belonging to the Order of St. John. Education Reforms Planned 15 new primary schools. Replaced the University of Valletta with an École Polytechnique focused on science and mathematics. Church Reforms Expelled foreign clergy and limited religious orders to one convent each. Abolished the Inquisition. Seized church treasures to fund the government. 4. The Maltese Revolt Against the French (1798–1800) Why Did the Maltese Revolt? Forced celebrations of the French Revolution (14 July 1798). Freedom of press was limited (only one French-controlled newspaper). No financial support for Maltese families whose members joined the French army. Increased taxes and economic hardship. Looting of churches and noble properties. The Revolt Begins (2 September 1798) French soldiers attempted to steal tapestries from Mdina’s Carmelite Church. Maltese rioted and killed French soldiers, including Officer Masson. The French retreated to Valletta, blocking themselves in the Grand Harbour towns. The Maltese formed battalions and a National Assembly to lead the resistance. Key Maltese Leaders Manuel Vitale (Commander-in-Chief). Dun Mikiel Xerri (Executed for planning a revolt inside Valletta). Francesco Saverio Caruana (Religious leader and military strategist). Censu Borg Braret (Financed Maltese troops and built fortifications). Seeking British Assistance The Maltese requested help from Admiral Horatio Nelson. British Captain Alexander Ball arrived with warships to blockade Valletta. 5. The Fall of the French in Malta (1800) Reasons for French Capitulation (September 1800) No reinforcements from France due to the British naval blockade. Severe food shortages – French soldiers were forced to eat horses, dogs, cats, and rats. Disease outbreaks weakened French troops. The Surrender (5 September 1800) General Vaubois surrendered to the British. The British, not the Maltese, negotiated the surrender. Malta became a British Protectorate under Alexander Ball. 6. Key Figures of the French Period in Malta 1. Mikiel Anton Vassalli (1764–1829) Promoted the Maltese language. Supported French rule, believing it would benefit Malta. Imprisoned and exiled after the British takeover. 2. Dun Mikiel Xerri (1737–1799) Planned a secret revolt in Valletta. Captured and executed by the French. Considered a national hero. 3. Manuel Vitale Led Maltese troops against the French. Helped form the National Assembly. Became Governor of Gozo under British rule. 4. Censu Borg Braret (1789–1862) Funded Maltese resistance. Built fortifications to attack French strongholds. Awarded the Pro Patria gold medal. 5. Francesco Saverio Caruana (1759–1847) Led Maltese forces in the Żebbuġ and Siġġiewi areas. Helped bring the British to Malta. Became Bishop of Malta in 1831. The British Period in Malta (1800–1964) 1. British Takeover of Malta (1800–1813) Why Did the British Take Over Malta? Malta became a British Protectorate in 1800 after the French occupation ended. The British had several strategic reasons for keeping Malta: Location – Malta was in the center of the Mediterranean Sea. Natural Harbours – Deep and sheltered harbours made Malta ideal for naval operations. Dockyard Facilities – Malta had a functioning shipbuilding and repair dockyard. Strong Fortifications – Built by the Knights of St. John, these provided a natural defense. Maltese Support – The Maltese favored British rule over the return of the Knights. Fear of Russian Invasion – Britain wanted to prevent Russian expansion in the Mediterranean. The Treaty of Amiens (1802) France and Britain signed an agreement regarding Malta: Britain had to leave Malta. Malta was to be returned to the Knights of St. John. Maltese nobles would become Knights of St. John. The Maltese were to govern alongside the Knights. ➡ Maltese Discontent: The Maltese rejected this treaty and wrote the Declaration of Rights (June 1802), stating their desire to remain under British protection. ➡ Britain Stays in Malta: When war resumed between Britain and France (1803), the British decided to keep Malta due to its strategic importance. Malta Becomes a British Colony (1813) After Napoleon’s defeat, Britain declared Malta a British Colony in 1813. ✔ Governors ruled with unlimited powers, appointed by the Secretary of State for the Colonies. ✔ The Congress of Vienna (1814–1815) confirmed British rule over Malta. ✔ The Maltese wanted to remain a Protectorate (self-governance under British protection) but were forced into direct colonial rule. 2. British Military Architecture in Malta The British modernized and expanded Malta’s defensive fortifications. Key Military Constructions 1. Harbour Fortifications a. Fort St. Elmo – Strengthened with new gun placements. b. Cottonera Lines – Reinforced for better military control. 2. Coastal Batteries and Forts a. Fort Rinella – Home to the 100-ton gun for Grand Harbour defense. b. Fort Delimara – Protected Marsaxlokk Bay. c. Sliema Point Battery – A Neo-Gothic fort now used as a restaurant. 3. Victoria Lines (1870s–1899) a. Defensive wall stretching from Fomm ir-Riħ to Madliena. b. Built along a natural fault to separate northern and western Malta. c. Forts: Binġemma, Mosta, Madliena, Pembroke. 4. World War II Defenses a. 400 pillboxes built to defend against an Axis invasion. b. Shelters dug in rock to protect civilians from air attacks. 3. The British Influence on Malta’s Architecture During British rule, two architectural styles became popular: Neo-Classical Architecture (Inspired by Ancient Greece & Rome) Symmetry and proportion. Domes and columns (Doric, Ionic, Corinthian). Pediments (triangular structures over columns). Examples in Malta: 🏛 Mosta Dome (one of the largest unsupported domes in the world). 🏛 St. Paul’s Anglican Cathedral (Valletta). 🏛 Main Guard (Valletta) – British military headquarters. Neo-Gothic Architecture (Inspired by Medieval Gothic Style) Pointed arches. Stained glass windows. Flying buttresses and spires. Examples in Malta: Addolorata Cemetery. Holy Trinity Church (Sliema). Our Lady of Mount Carmel Church (Balluta). 4. Impact of British Rule on Malta 1. Economic Development Dockyard Expansion – Malta became a major Royal Navy base. Suez Canal (1869) – Increased Malta’s trade and naval importance. Employment Growth – Jobs in shipbuilding, administration, and trade. 2. Social and Educational Reforms Education Reforms – British introduced compulsory schooling. Newspapers and Printing Press – Encouraged literacy and public debate. Official Languages – English was introduced, but Maltese remained widely spoken. 3. Political Changes Self-Government Movements – The Maltese demanded more autonomy. 1921 Constitution – Gave Malta limited self-rule. Suspension of Constitution (1933) – Britain revoked Maltese self-government due to tensions. 5. Malta During the World Wars World War I (1914–1918) ✔ "Nurse of the Mediterranean" – Malta served as a medical base for wounded soldiers. World War II (1939–1945) ✔ Malta’s Strategic Importance – Controlled Mediterranean supply routes. ✔ Heavy Bombing (1940–1942) – Malta was one of the most heavily bombed places in history. ✔ George Cross (1942) – Awarded by King George VI for bravery during the Siege of Malta. ✔ Victory Over Axis Powers (1943) – Malta played a key role in the Allied invasion of Sicily. 6. The Road to Independence Post-War Political Developments 1947 – Britain restored Maltese self-government. 1955 – Malta considered integration with the UK but later abandoned the idea. 1964 – Malta gained Independence from Britain, becoming a sovereign nation. Culture and Identity in Malta 1. What Is Culture? Culture refers to the shared beliefs, values, customs, traditions, language, norms, and practices that define a particular society. It is learned and passed down from generation to generation, shaping people’s identities, relationships, and behaviors. Culture is dynamic – It changes over time based on societal influences. Culture affects various aspects of life, including art, religion, traditions, and institutions. 2. Dominant Culture vs. Subculture Dominant Culture ✔ The mainstream culture of a country. ✔ Holds authority, power, and influence in society. ✔ Establishes language, behavior, and values. Subculture ✔ A smaller cultural group within the dominant society. ✔ Has its own values, language, and customs. ✔ Includes youth cultures, ethnic groups, and religious communities. ✔ Can coexist with the dominant culture but may also offer resistance. 3. Key Elements of Culture 1. Language Malta has its own unique language, Maltese, which has Semitic roots influenced by Italian and English. Maltese and English are official languages, reflecting Malta’s history and colonial influences. 2. Customs and Traditions Malta has many cultural practices linked to history, religion, and local identity: ✔ Sporting traditions – Football rivalry, regatta boat races, water polo. ✔ Religious traditions – Village feasts, patron saint processions. ✔ Festivals – Carnival, Easter, Santa Marija (15 August). ✔ Traditional foods – Pastizzi, fenkata (rabbit stew), ftira, soppa tal-armla (widow’s soup). 3. Norms and Values Norms: Unwritten rules of behavior (e.g., respect for elders, hospitality). Values: Key principles shaping society (e.g., hard work, faith, family unity). 4. National Symbols Symbols represent Malta’s identity: Maltese Cross – Symbol of the Knights of St. John. 🏛 Valletta & Mdina – Historical cities representing Malta’s past. L-għana (folk music) – Traditional Maltese storytelling through song. 4. Maltese Cultural Identity Maltese culture is shaped by historical influences from the Phoenicians, Romans, Arabs, Normans, Knights of St. John, French, and British. Key Aspects of Maltese Culture Language – Maltese, with Italian and English influences. ✝ Religion – Predominantly Roman Catholic, affecting traditions and social life. 🍽 Cuisine – A mix of Mediterranean and colonial influences (e.g., British and Italian). Festivals – Religious feasts, music, and artistic celebrations. Arts & Crafts – Filigree jewelry, lace-making, glass-blowing. Impact on Daily Life Language fosters national identity and communication. Religion influences customs, traditions, and celebrations. Traditional foods and music connect people to their heritage. 5. Multiculturalism in Malta What Is a Multicultural Society? A multicultural society accepts and promotes cultural diversity within its population. Causes of Multiculturalism in Malta Migration – Foreign workers and expatriates settle in Malta. Tourism – Visitors introduce new cultural elements. Intercultural Marriages – Families blend different traditions. Advantages of Multiculturalism ✔ Learning new traditions, foods, and languages. ✔ Increased innovation and ideas. ✔ Enhanced cooperation and tolerance among people. Disadvantages of Multiculturalism Cultural conflicts and misunderstandings. Overpopulation and strain on public resources. Risk of losing elements of local culture. 6. Globalization and Its Effects on Culture What Is Globalization? Globalization refers to the increased interconnectedness of societies through technology, trade, and cultural exchange. Examples of Globalization E-commerce – Online shopping from international markets. International Cuisine – Global food chains (e.g., McDonald's, sushi restaurants). Social Media & Technology – Instant communication across cultures. Multinational Companies – Businesses expanding worldwide (e.g., Apple, Nike). Impact of Globalization on Society Increased trade and investment opportunities. Wider access to technology and innovation. New job opportunities in global industries. Increased inequality between rich and poor countries. Erosion of traditional cultures in favor of Western trends.