Public Opinion, Political Socialization and Ideology

• Public opinion is citizens' views on politics and government action
• Political scientists study public opinion at the individual (psychology) and aggregate level (sociology)
• In an indirect democracy, the government should be responsive to the public by being informed and meaningful
• Many people feel mixed feelings about issues and position issues have people who disagree reasonably

Political Socialization

• It's the process of learning political values and assumptions about politics that starts in childhood
• Concrete ideas form in adolescence and early adulthood with basic attitudes passed through generations
• Agents of political socialization influence political learning by providing credible and politically relevant information
• Agents include family, peers, school, church, media, and events
• People with similar socialization experiences tend to have similar values and opinions, although individual experiences are unique

Ideology

• It is an interconnected set of ideas about values, politics, and government
• Libertarianism ideology maximizes individual freedoms
• Ideology can help structure public opinion and serve as an identity devoid of policies
• Ideology is multidimensional, but many scholars consider it using economic and social dimensions
• Most people do not think ideologically with few being ideologically extreme and almost everyone falling between the liberal and conservative continuum

Polling

• Four elements include writing, drawing, asking, and interpreting the results
• Public opinion may shape public policy by influencing elections and impacting policy outcomes
• Elections can be a blunt instrument for dictating policies given complexity, detail, and collective enterprise

Media and Democracy

• Information is crucial for citizens in a democracy
• Mass media is defined as sources providing information to average citizens daily
• Media acts as a linkage institution or intermediary like parties/interest groups
• The term "media" is a plural noun with multiple objectives
• News media/journalism is important for democracies but is diverse, with social media increasing diversity, but journalistic safeguards are down
• Media functions include reporting/interpreting news, providing agendas/forums, socialization, and entertainment

Development of Media in the US

• Changes in media orientations have been driven by technological advances (printing press, paper, TV, Internet)
• Competition and market forces contribute to media development
• Reliable information is still needed but often takes a backseat to generating profits
• Objective journalism is the standard that newspapers should report facts fairly and neutrally
• Objective journalism is a backlash against yellow journalism and partisan presses

Rise of Social Media

• Social media has transformed political processes
• It allows candidates to communicate directly with supporters
• Social media is rife with disinformation and vulnerable to foreign influence
• Public trust in news media has eroded and contributes to partisan divide

Political Parties

• They are organizations that run candidates for public office and coordinate efforts of electors elected under the party banner
• They help overcome collective action problems and provide avenues for like-minded people to work together
• Political parties nominate candidates, mobilize voters, recruit leaders, coordinate elected officials, manage accountability and societal conflict
• They are decentralized, have broad-based electorate support, ambiguous membership, and are nonprogrammatic

Why Two Parties?

• The US has two major parties, unlike countries with multiparty systems because of winner-take-all systems and the dualistic nature of American politics
• Minor parties can make a difference by acting as spoilers, bringing issues to national attention, and providing outlets for voters

Structure of American Parties

• It is studied in terms of dimensions or spheres (Party in Government, Electorate, Organizations), with all three existing independently but related

Party Identification

• It is an individual's emotional/psychological attachment to a political party
• Voters develop a sense of party belonging which can alter in response to events
• Republicans tend to vote for Republican candidates while Democrats vote Democrat

Nominating Function of Political Parties

• The nomination process serves two goals of selecting a standard bearer and a candidate who can win a general election
• In the US, parties open up the process to regular voters contrary to democracies

Nominating Systems

• Types of primary elections include preliminary elections held within the party to select candidates for the general election
• Primary elections can be closed (only party members can vote) or open
• A top-two primary narrows the field of candidates for the general election (not partisan)
• Caucus/convention systems involve local meetings of party supporters to select delegates and are preferential for candidates with smaller groups of intense supporters
• In Michigan, primary elections are used for gubernatorial and legislative elections, while party conventions are used for other state offices

Could US Parties Be Improved?

• There is mixed feeling about parties since founding
• Some people argue that party actors put winning elections over solving societal problems
• Parties help with collective action problems in democracies
• Presidential nominations happen formally at national party conventions

How are Presidential Candidates selected?

• The contests last spring decided who the delegates will be and who they pledged to support
• Presidential primaries follow state laws, party rules, and national party guidelines
• Tradition says Iowa, New Hampshire, Nevada, and South Carolina should go first, but Democrats opted for a different order
• The presidential nominating process is lengthy (January-June), open and participatory, and candidate-centered
• Nominees are media and money-driven
• Kamala Harris became the Democratic president nominee without running in primaries

Electoral College

• The Electoral college is analogous to presidential nomination process.

Nomination Stage

• Voters in states select delegates who select nominees at the national party conventions

General Election Stage

• Voters in states select electors who elect the president and vice president in the electoral college

Impacts of the Electoral College

• The EC raises the possibility that a candidate with the most popular votes will not win
• Election outcomes are affected by candidate campaign strategies
• EC potentially reduces participation in elections, especially in states where one party dominates
• Small populations, faithless electors, and US citizens that live outside of the fifty states and DC affect election outcomes

Congressional Elections

• In presidential election years, the party that wins the presidency usually gains seats in congress
• In midterm years, the president's party usually loses seats in congress
• Incumbents rarely lose

Incumbency Advantage

• The advantages of incumbency include safe districts for candidates, gerrymandering, media coverage, easier campaign contributions, staff support and experience
• The dilemma of campaign finance regulation is between free speech and corruption and candidates are more regulated

Election Commission

• For candidates, their campaigns and PACS: The Federal Election Commission (FEC)
• For other groups: The internal revenue service (IRS)

Direct Democracy in the United States

• In a direct democracy, policy questions go to voters with policy questions for a decision
• Research suggests ballot proposals benefit the wealthy and powerful

Direct Democracy in Michigan

• Michigan allows voters to engage in direct democracy via four types of ballot proposals; Initiative, Referenda, Recalls, and Constitutional amendments

Political Participation

• It is the means by which citizens try to exert influence on the government
• Voting is the prominent mean
• There are two types of participation: unconventional and conventional

Unconventional Participation

• It aims to publicize a cause by confrontation

Conventional Participation

• This includes routine behavior

Examples of Participation

• Examples of unconventional participation include student protesting, nonviolent sit-ins, kneeling during the star-spangled banner, the Boston Tea party, terrorism, and political violence
• Unconventional participation is practiced by outgroups
• Involves pledge of allegiance, voting, writing letters to elected officials and rallies

Voting

• Involves two decisions - should I vote and who should I vote for?
• R=pB - C +D (R is participating likelihood, pB is benefits of your side winning weighted by probability, C is the cost of voting, and D is the good feeling you get from voting)
• Policy issues require information from voters on preferences and candidate platforms
• Single-issue voters choose candidates based on just one issue

US Direct Democracy

• In a direct democracy policy questions go to voters which is democratic but can be difficult
• Some research suggest that ballot proposals benefit the wealthy and powerful

Voter Turnout

• Relative to other countries Americans are less likely to vote, but more likely to participate in other forms of conventional participation
• A burden of registration rests on individuals, too many elections lead to voter fatigue, and there are too many confusing candidates

Role of Campaigns

• Parties and campaigns attempt to increase the benefits and decrease the costs of voting for the supporters
• Parties and campaigns seek to highlight the differences between candidates
• Offer to transport to the poles and provide assistance
• Increase the benefits for supporters

Parties vs Interest Groups

• Political Party = organization that sponsors candidates for office
• Interest group = organization of individuals seeking to influence public policy
• Similarities include parties, interest groups and media acting as intermediaries between citizens and government
• Parties and interest groups allow people to work together and enhances their effectiveness
• Both support candidates in elections

How are they Different?

• A party primary goal is to win elections and control the government
• Interest groups try to influence policy outcomes with only the parties running candiates

Is the US a Pluralist society?

• Pluralism is democracy operating through competing groups
• American democracy works through interest groups
• This is an upper class bias

What Types of People Join?

• People with resources and time
• As a result, interest groups do not always reflect American society
• Collective actions problems results
• Solving free rider problem results in extra benefits
• Overcoming collective action problems can be done with material benefits
• Solidary benefits involves satisfaction and purposive benefit, etc

Types of Interest Groups

• Membership or citizen groups share ideas or goals but do not have material interests
• Economic Groups = corporations / businesses or labor unions
• Inside strategies utilizes tactics like direct lobbying, drafting legislation and regulations, providing research and participating in hearings and litigation
• Outside Strategies = tactics, that interest groups use externally
• Grassroots lobbying utilizes non-paid lobbyists and advocates
• “Astroturf” lobbying = fake grassroots
• Utilizes shaping and mobilizing public opinion/Electioneering
• Interest groups spend money during elections/endorse candidates

PACs and Super PACS

• PACS raise money from group members
• Super PACS raise from anyone and contribute unlimited amounts
• Cannot give this money to candidates

What determines interest group success?

• Interest groups are successful at preventing change
• Are better at mobilizing friend and less successful when unopposed and on “low salience” issues