Psychophysiological Assessment & Diagnostics

Psychophysiological Assessment Methods

• Electroencephalogram (EEG) measures brain wave activity.
• Heart rate and respiration monitors heart rate and breathing activity
• Electrodermal response and levels measures sweat gland activity to assess physiological arousal.
• Electromyography (EMG) records muscle tension, useful in stress and anxiety assessment.
• Plethysmograph measures sexual arousal through changes in blood flow.

Diagnosing Psychological Disorders

• Clinical assessment takes an idiographic approach, focusing on individual traits, family background, culture, and circumstances.
• Psychiatric diagnosis uses a nomothetic approach, classifying individuals into general categories based on shared symptoms.
• Taxonomy refers to classification in a scientific context.
• Nosology refers to classification in psychological or medical contexts.
• Nomenclature refers to labelling disorders and using specific names for them.

Classification Systems

• The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) is published by the WHO.
• The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is published by the APA.
• DSM-I and II were unreliable and based on unproven theories.
• DSM-III and IV emphasized clinical descriptions, detailed criteria, and reliability.

Classification Approaches

• The Classical (Categorical) approach classifies disorders as distinct categories with clear causes, useful in medicine but oversimplifies psychological disorders.
• The Dimensional approach places disorders on a continuum, where symptoms vary in intensity. Severity is measured on a scale.
• The Prototypical approach combines categorical and dimensional approaches and requires meeting a minimum number of diagnostic criteria.

Research in Psychopathology

• Key questions in psychopathology research include identifying causes of distress/dysfunction, reasons for unusual behavior, and methods to promote adaptive behavior.
• The independent variable (IV) is manipulated to test its effect.
• The dependent variable (DV) is the behavior influenced by the IV.
• Internal validity determines whether the IV causes changes in the DV.
• External validity determines whether results can be generalized.
• Statistical significance indicates the probability that results are due to chance.
• Clinical significance assesses whether the results are practically meaningful.

Research Methodologies

• Case studies involve extensive, detailed study of an individual but have low internal validity and are prone to biases.
• Correlational research examines relationships between variables without manipulation but cannot establish causation.
• Epidemiological research examines the incidence, prevalence, and distribution of disorders.
• Experimental research involves manipulation of variables to establish causation and is the gold standard for validating treatment efficacy.

Genetic Research Strategies

• Behavioral genetics studies the interaction between genes and behavior.
• Phenotype refers to observable traits.
• Genotype refers to genetic makeup.
• Family, twin, and adoption studies are used to determine genetic influences.

Cross-Cultural Research

• Cultural differences exist in how psychopathology is expressed and treated.
• Challenges include ethnocentrism and differing thresholds for abnormal behavior.
• Cross-cultural research enhances understanding and treatment through diverse cultural perspectives.

Mood Disorders Overview

• Major depressive disorder (MDD) involves symptoms lasting at least 2 weeks, including loss of interest, weight changes, fatigue, and thoughts of death.
• Persistent depressive disorder (PDD) involves a chronic low mood lasting for at least 2 years (1 year for children/adolescents).
• Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) involves severe premenstrual symptoms.
• Bipolar I includes manic episodes, which may involve grandiosity, decreased need for sleep, and risky behavior.
• Bipolar II includes hypomanic episodes and depressive episodes.
• Cyclothymic disorder involves chronic mood instability.

Treatment of Mood Disorders

• Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) challenges negative thought patterns.
• Medications include antidepressants (SSRIs, tricyclic antidepressants) and mood stabilizers (e.g., lithium).

Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD)

• Symptoms involve fear of being scrutinized in social situations, leading to avoidance or extreme distress.
• Treatments include CBT, exposure therapy, SSRIs, and beta-blockers (for physical symptoms).

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

• Obsessions are persistent, intrusive thoughts or images.
• Compulsions are repetitive actions performed to reduce anxiety.
• Treatments include CBT (exposure and response prevention) and medications like SSRIs or Clomipramine.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

• Symptoms include re-experiencing trauma, avoidance of reminders, and hyperarousal.
• Treatments include CBT (particularly trauma-focused therapy) to reduce distressing emotions and promote adaptive coping, as well as medications like SSRIs for anxiety and panic symptoms.

Phobias and Anxiety Disorders

• Specific phobia is a fear triggered by a specific object or situation.
• Treatments include exposure therapy and systematic desensitization.
• Social Anxiety Disorder focuses on fears of negative judgment in social settings.

Bipolar and Depressive Disorders Overview

• Bipolar I and II involve extreme mood swings, from manic episodes to depressive episodes.
• Major Depressive Disorder involves consistent low mood, loss of interest, and impaired functioning.