Psychopathology: Definitions of Abnormality

Psychopathology

• Psychopathology is the study of mental disorders
• Definitions of abnormality are used to classify and categorize mental illnesses.

Definitions of Abnormality

• Statistical Infrequency: A behaviour is considered abnormal if it is rare or occurs less frequently than two standard deviations from the mean in a normal distribution. Statistical infrequency is often problematic when identifying disorders as normality is always relative to the population being studied. For example, a high IQ is statistically infrequent, but not an illness.
• Deviation from Social Norms: This approach suggests that a behaviour is abnormal if it deviates from the generally accepted norms of a specific culture. These norms vary considerably across cultures. Thus, behaviour considered normal in one culture might be seen as abnormal in another.
• Failure to Function Adequately: This definition of abnormality focuses on whether a person is able to live a normal life. In this context, a person is deemed abnormal if their behavior inhibits their ability to lead 'normal' lives, causing distress to themselves or others.
• Deviation from Ideal Mental Health: This approach proposes the existence of criteria for optimal mental health. Any deviation from these ideals would be considered abnormal. However, this approach faces criticism for possessing unrealistic standards regarding 'ideal' health.

Characteristics of Phobias

• Behavioural:
  • Panic: characterized by heightened physiological arousal upon exposure to the phobic stimulus.
  • Avoidance: negatively reinforced behaviour to prevent encountering the trigger.
  • Endurance: Exposure to the phobic stimulus over an extended period, despite anxiety.
• Emotional:
  • Anxiety: the emotional consequence of the physiological response to the phobic stimulus.
  • Irrationality: The anxiety towards the phobic stimulus is disproportionate to the actual threat.
• Cognitive:
  • Selective Attention: Focus on the phobic stimulus, even when it causes significant distress.
  • Irrational Beliefs: Unreasonable interpretations of the phobic stimulus or danger posed by it.
  • Cognitive Distortions: an inaccurate perception of the phobic stimulus.

Characteristics of Depression

• Behavioural:
  • Changed activity levels (e.g., psychomotor agitation or retardation).
  • Aggression (verbal or physical).
  • Changes in eating and sleeping habits (e.g., insomnia or obesity).
• Emotional:
  • Low self-esteem.
  • Persistent low mood (lasting for significant periods).
  • Increased levels of anger.

Characteristics of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

• Behavioural:
  • Compulsions: Repetitive behaviours that alleviate anxiety.
  • Avoidance behaviours: Avoiding specific stimuli to prevent anxiety.
• Emotional:
  • Guilt and disgust.
  • Depression (due to compulsion interference).
  • Anxiety
• Cognitive:
  • Acknowledgement of irrational anxiety.
  • Cognitive strategies to cope with obsessions.
  • Obsessive thoughts

Behavioural Approach to Explaining Phobias

• Classical conditioning: This involves learning to associate a neutral stimulus (e.g., a white rat) with an aversive stimulus (e.g., a loud noise). Repeated pairings of the neutral stimulus and the aversive stimulus result in the neutral stimulus becoming a conditioned stimulus that triggers the conditioned response of fear. A common phobia example is a child being bitten by a dog, thus linking the dog to the fear response.
• Operant conditioning: This involves learning avoidance behaviours due to fear and the relief of avoiding this fear. This behaviour is reinforced negatively by eliminating the fear and avoidance.

Treatment of Phobias

• Systematic Desensitisation: Gradually exposes the person to feared stimuli while simultaneously using relaxation techniques. This method helps to create a counter-response to the stimulus, replacing fear with relaxation.
• Flooding: This involves exposing the person to the feared stimulus intensely and continuously until the fear response starts to decrease.

Cognitive Approach to Explaining and Treating Depression

• Negative cognitive triad: Negative thoughts about the self, the future, and the world.
• Cognitive distortions: Faulty or biased information processing.
• Automatic thoughts: Thoughts that automatically occur in response to a stimulus without conscious thought.
• Beck's Cognitive Therapy: Helps identify and challenge negative thoughts and dysfunctional beliefs. This is in accordance to 'CBT' theory.
• Ellis' Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy: This method aims to identify and challenge irrational beliefs to address the root of the depression.

Biological Approach to Explaining and Treating OCD

• Genetic predisposition: Inherited vulnerability to OCD.
• Neurotransmitter imbalances: Imbalance in neurotransmitters, such as serotonin.
• Brain structure/function: Abnormal brain structures and functions linked to OCD.
• Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs): Medications that target serotonin levels, helping alleviate symptoms for many OCD patients.