Psychopathology
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following is an example of a behavior that may be regarded as abnormal even though it is quite frequent?

  • Left-handedness (correct)
  • Schizophrenia
  • Anxiety
  • Depression

    • According to Jahoda, which of the following is NOT one of the six criteria necessary for ideal mental health?

  • Positive attitude towards oneself
  • Absence of personal distress (correct)
  • Accurate perception of reality
  • Autonomy and independence

    • Which of the following is a limitation of the deviation from social norms definition of abnormality?

  • Norms can vary over time
  • It is based on cultural relativism (correct)
  • It does not take into account the importance of norms
  • It does not consider personal distress

    • What does the Failure to Function Adequately definition of abnormality refer to?

    <p>Abnormal behavior that prevents the person from carrying out expected behaviors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)?

    <p>Persistent and recurrent thoughts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one cognitive characteristic of OCD?

    <p>Persistent and recurrent thoughts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one behavioral characteristic of OCD?

    <p>Extreme anxiety if rituals are not performed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which definition of abnormality could describe Diane's behavior?

    <p>Deviation from ideal mental health</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which therapy aims to change the way a client thinks by challenging irrational and maladaptive thought processes?

    <p>Cognitive behavioral therapy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What impact can negative and unrealistic thoughts have on individuals?

    <p>They can lead to psychological distress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe a more accurate view of the world through negative cognitions?

    <p>Depressive realism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is primarily targeted by drugs used to treat obsessive-compulsive disorder?

    <p>Serotonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic of depression according to the cognitive approach?

    <p>Lack of concentration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between associations and causation?

    <p>Associations are based on correlations, while causation implies a cause-and-effect relationship</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the treatment etiology fallacy?

    <p>The belief that the treatment for a condition is the cause of the condition itself</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is thought to be involved in regulating mood and is found to be reduced in individuals with OCD?

    <p>Serotonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the dopamine hypothesis in relation to schizophrenia?

    <p>Dopamine levels are elevated in individuals with schizophrenia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) in individuals with OCD?

    <p>The PFC is over-activated in individuals with OCD</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of genetic factors in the development of OCD?

    <p>Genetic factors create vulnerability to OCD</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Beck's Negative Triad, what are the three forms of negative thinking typical of individuals with depression?

    <p>Negative thoughts about the self, the world, and the future</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Beck, what are cognitive biases in individuals with depression?

    <p>Distortions of thought processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are schemas according to Beck's theory?

    <p>Deeply held negative beliefs acquired in childhood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Lewinsohn et al. (2001), what did their study suggest about the relationship between negative thinking and depression?

    <p>Negative beliefs are a risk factor for developing depression when exposed to stressful life events</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Psychopathology refers to the study of mental disorders in terms of their ________

    <p>causes, development, course, classification, and treatment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A person's trait, thinking, or behavior is classified as abnormal under the definition of abnormality based on ________

    <p>statistical infrequency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    One limitation of the definition of abnormality based on statistical infrequency is that it fails to recognize the ________ of the particular behavior

    <p>desirability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True or false: Psychopathology refers to the study of mental disorders in terms of their causes, development, course, classification, and treatment?

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True or false: According to the definition of abnormality based on statistical infrequency, abnormal behavior in people should be rare or statistically unusual?

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True or false: The definition of abnormality based on statistical infrequency fails to distinguish between desirable and undesirable behavior?

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True or false: The use of the term 'abnormal' in this context would not be appropriate

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True or false: Depression may affect 27% of elderly people

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True or false: The deviation from social norms definition of abnormality considers the degree to which a norm is violated and the value attached by the social group to different sorts of violations

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True or false: Failure to function adequately refers to an abnormality that prevents the person from carrying out the range of behaviors that society would expect

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True or false: Abnormality is defined as a deviation from ideal mental health?

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True or false: Hoarding disorder is defined as a difficulty parting with items and possessions?

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True or false: Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is characterized by intrusive and uncontrollable thoughts?

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True or false: Compulsions are the repetitive behavioral responses intended to neutralize obsessions in OCD?

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True or false: Faulty cognitions are always a cause of psychopathology?

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True or false: Cognitive behavioral therapy aims to change behavior by challenging thought processes?

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True or false: Negative and unrealistic thoughts can lead to psychological distress?

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True or false: The dopamine hypothesis argues that elevated levels of dopamine are related to symptoms of schizophrenia.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True or false: Biological explanations for mental disorders focus on multiple factors and consider psychological factors such as cognitions.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True or false: Genetic factors play a role in the development of OCD, as suggested by family and twin studies.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True or false: Individuals with OCD may have an overactive prefrontal cortex, which leads to exaggerated control of primal impulses.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ben's change in behavior is an example of the behavioral aspect of his state.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ben's feeling of intense sadness is an example of the emotional aspect of his state.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ben's difficulty in concentrating for long periods of time is an example of the cognitive aspect of his state.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ben's change in eating patterns and weight loss are examples of the behavioral aspect of his state.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Negative thinking is a cause, rather than an effect, of depression.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Beck's Negative Triad consists of negative thoughts about the self, the world, and the past.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cognitive biases are distortions of thought processes that individuals with depression are prone to making.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Albert Ellis proposes that depression is caused by irrational thoughts triggered by negative events.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the definition of abnormality based on statistical infrequency refer to?

    <p>The definition of abnormality based on statistical infrequency refers to classifying a person's trait, thinking, or behavior as abnormal if it is rare or statistically unusual.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the strengths of the definition of abnormality based on statistical infrequency?

    <p>The strengths of the definition of abnormality based on statistical infrequency are that it provides an objective way to define abnormality if an agreed cut-off point can be identified and no value judgments are made.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the limitations of the definition of abnormality based on statistical infrequency?

    <p>The limitations of the definition of abnormality based on statistical infrequency are that it fails to distinguish between desirable and undesirable behavior and many very gifted individuals could be classified as 'abnormal' using this definition.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one definition of abnormality that could describe Diane's behavior?

    <p>Diane's behavior could be defined as deviating from social norms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Outline three definitions of abnormality, other than deviation from ideal mental health.

    <p>Three definitions of abnormality, other than deviation from ideal mental health, are statistical infrequency, failure to function adequately, and deviation from social norms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Outline one cognitive characteristic of OCD that can be identified from Steven's description.

    <p>One cognitive characteristic of OCD that can be identified from Steven's description is the presence of obsessive thoughts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Outline one behavioral characteristic of OCD that can be identified from Steven's description.

    <p>One behavioral characteristic of OCD that can be identified from Steven's description is the need to engage in compulsive behaviors to neutralize obsessions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the aim of cognitive behavioral therapy?

    <p>The aim of cognitive behavioral therapy is to change the way a client thinks by challenging irrational and maladaptive thought processes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do negative and unrealistic thoughts impact individuals?

    <p>Negative and unrealistic thoughts can cause distress and result in problems for individuals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is depressive realism?

    <p>Depressive realism refers to the idea that sometimes negative cognitions provide a more accurate view of the world.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the limitations of the deviation from social norms definition of abnormality?

    <p>Cultural relativism and variation of norms over time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the six criteria necessary for ideal mental health according to Jahoda?

    <p>Positive self-attitude, self-actualization, autonomy, accurate perception of reality, environmental mastery, and positive interpersonal relationships.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic of depression according to the cognitive approach?

    <p>Negative thinking.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Failure to Function Adequately definition of abnormality based on?

    <p>Behaviors that prevent a person from carrying out the range of behaviors that society would expect.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the dopamine hypothesis in relation to schizophrenia?

    <p>The dopamine hypothesis argues that elevated levels of dopamine are related to symptoms of schizophrenia.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do genetic factors play in the development of OCD?

    <p>Genetic factors play a role in the development of OCD, as suggested by family and twin studies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic of depression according to the cognitive approach?

    <p>The main characteristic of depression according to the cognitive approach is negative thinking, such as negative thoughts about the self, the world, and the future.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) in individuals with OCD?

    <p>The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is over-activated in individuals with OCD, leading to an exaggerated control of primal impulses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two classes of drugs that have proved effective in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder?

    <p>Serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SRIs) and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the criteria for diagnosing depression using the DSM-IV-TR?

    <p>At least five or more symptoms of depression should be apparent.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the cognitive approach, what causes depression?

    <p>Faulty cognitions about others, our world, and ourselves.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the behavioral, emotional, and cognitive aspects of Ben's state?

    <p>Behavioral: Neglect of personal appearance, loss of appetite, disturbed sleep patterns, withdrawal from others. Emotional: Intense sadness, irritability, apathy, feelings of worthlessness, and anger. Cognitive: Negative thoughts, lack of concentration, low self-esteem, poor memory, recurrent thoughts of death, and low confidence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three forms of negative thinking typical of individuals with depression according to Beck's Negative Triad?

    <p>Negative thoughts about the self, the world, and the future.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are cognitive biases in individuals with depression according to Beck?

    <p>Cognitive biases are distortions of thought processes. Individuals with depression are prone to making logical errors in their thinking and tend to focus selectively on certain negative aspects of a situation while ignoring equally relevant positive information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Albert Ellis, what is the main cause of depression?

    <p>According to Ellis, depression is caused by irrational thoughts (beliefs) triggered by negative events.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Lewinsohn et al. (2001) find regarding the relationship between negative thinking and depression?

    <p>They found that individuals who had experienced many negative life events had an increased likelihood of developing depression only if they were initially high in negative attitudes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following definitions of abnormality with their descriptions:

    <p>Statistical Infrequency = This definition fails to distinguish between desirable and undesirable behavior Failure to Function Adequately = Refers to an abnormality that prevents the person from carrying out the range of behaviors that society would expect Deviation from Ideal Mental Health = Abnormality is defined as a deviation from the six criteria necessary for ideal mental health</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following strengths and limitations with the definition of abnormality based on Statistical Infrequency:

    <p>Strength = No value judgments are made Limitation = Statistically speaking, many very gifted individuals could be classified as ‘abnormal’ using this definition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following aspects with the examples from Ben's state:

    <p>Behavioral = Ben's change in eating patterns and weight loss Emotional = Ben's feeling of intense sadness Cognitive = Ben's difficulty in concentrating for long periods of time Genetic = Ben's predisposition to certain mental disorders</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their definitions:

    <p>Depressive Realism = A term used to describe a more accurate view of the world through negative cognitions Cognitive Behavioral Therapy = Aims to change the way a client thinks by challenging irrational and maladaptive thought processes Psychopathology = The scientific study of mental disorders Negative Triad = Three forms of negative thinking typical of individuals with depression, according to Beck</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following theories or concepts with their proponents:

    <p>Depressive Realism = Not attributed to a specific proponent in the given text Cognitive Behavioral Therapy = Not attributed to a specific proponent in the given text Negative Triad = Attributed to Beck in the given text Dopamine Hypothesis = Not mentioned in the given text</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following theories or concepts with their descriptions:

    <p>Depressive Realism = A theory that suggests sometimes negative cognitions are a more accurate view of the world Cognitive Behavioral Therapy = A therapy that aims to change the way a client thinks by challenging irrational and maladaptive thought processes Psychopathology = Not clearly defined in the given text, but mentioned in the context of faulty cognitions Dopamine Hypothesis = Not mentioned in the given text</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following characteristics of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) with their descriptions:

    <p>Obsessions = Persistent and recurrent thoughts, images, or beliefs entering the mind uninvited and which cannot be removed Compulsions = Repetitive behavioral responses intended to neutralize these obsessions, often involving rigidly applied rules Cognitive = Dominates ones thinking and are persistent and recurrent thoughts, images, or beliefs entering the mind uninvited and which cannot be removed Behavioral = Compulsions are the repetitive behavioral responses intended to neutralize these obsessions, often involving rigidly applied rules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their definitions:

    <p>Abnormality = A person's trait, thinking, or behavior is classified as abnormal under this definition Cognitive = Relating to or involving conscious intellectual activity, such as thinking, reasoning, or remembering Behavioral = Relating to or involving behavior, especially as it relates to the observable response of an organism to a stimulus Emotional = Relating to or characterized by emotion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their related concepts in the context of abnormal psychology:

    <p>Statistical Infrequency = A definition of abnormality that fails to recognize the context of the particular behavior Cognitive Approach = An approach to psychology that focuses on how people think, perceive, and remember Behavioral Approach = An approach to psychology that emphasizes observable behavior Biological Approach = An approach to psychology that focuses on the biological aspects of behavior and mental processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following theories with their proposed causes of mental disorders:

    <p>Biological Approach = Genetic and neurotransmitter involvement Cognitive Approach = Negative and unrealistic thoughts Behavioral Approach = Classical and operant conditioning Psychodynamic Approach = Unresolved conflicts and early childhood experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their correct definitions:

    <p>Negative Triad = Three forms of negative thinking typical of individuals with depression: negative thoughts about the self, the world, and the future Cognitive Biases = Distortions of thought processes that individuals with depression are prone to making Schemas = Deeply held beliefs that have their origins primarily in childhood and influence how a person interprets events and experiences in their life Beck's Theory = A cognitive theory of depression that states depression-prone individuals develop a negative self-schema</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following individuals with their theories or models of depression:

    <p>Aaron Beck = Negative Triad and Negative Schemas Albert Ellis = ABC Model Lewinsohn et al. = Negative thinking can be involved in the development of depression Jahoda = Six criteria necessary for ideal mental health</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following components of the ABC Model with their descriptions:

    <p>Activating event (A) = The event that triggers the irrational thoughts Irrational belief system (B) = The person's interpretations of events that are unrealistic Consequences (C) = The outcome or behavior resulting from the person's irrational beliefs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their correct descriptions:

    <p>Depressive Realism = The theory that depressed individuals have a more accurate perception of reality Cognitive Approach to Depression = Limited in that it ignores genetic factors and social factors relating to life events and gender Negative Attitudes = Increase the likelihood of developing depression when exposed to stressful life events Faulty Cognitions = Not always a cause of psychopathology according to the cognitive approach</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following definitions of abnormality with their key features:

    <p>Deviation from Social Norms = Abnormal if it violates the (unwritten) rules about what is expected or acceptable behavior in a particular social group Failure to Function Adequately = Abnormality that prevents the person from carrying out the range of behaviors that society would expect Deviation from Ideal Mental Health = Defines mental illness by looking at the absence of signs of physical health Cultural Relativism = What is considered normal in one culture may be considered abnormal in another</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following strengths and limitations to the respective definitions of abnormality:

    <p>Strengths of Deviation from Ideal Mental Health = Covers a broad range of criteria, most of which is why someone would seek help from mental health services or be referred for help Strengths of Failure to Function Adequately = Provides a practical checklist of seven criteria individuals can use to check their level of abnormality Limitations of Deviation from Social Norms = Norms can vary over time, resulting in different diagnoses in different cultures Limitations of Deviation from Ideal Mental Health = Unrealistic - Most people do not meet all the ideals because few people experience personal growth all the time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their definitions:

    <p>Deviation from Social Norms = A person’s thinking or behavior is classified as abnormal if it violates the (unwritten) rules about what is expected or acceptable behavior in a particular social group Failure to Function Adequately = Refers to an abnormality that prevents the person from carrying out the range of behaviors that society would expect Cultural Relativism = What is considered normal in one culture may be considered abnormal in another Deviation from Ideal Mental Health = Suggests that we define mental illness by looking at the absence of signs of physical health</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following strengths and limitations to the respective definitions of abnormality:

    <p>Strengths of Deviation from Social Norms = Gives a social dimension to the idea of abnormality, which offers an alternative to the 'sick in the head' individual Strengths of Failure to Function Adequately = Matches the sufferers’ perceptions as most people seeking clinical help believe that they are suffering from psychological problems that interfere with the ability to function properly Limitations of Deviation from Ideal Mental Health = Most people do not meet all the ideals because few people experience personal growth all the time Limitations of Deviation from Social Norms = Social norms can vary from culture to culture, resulting in different definitions of abnormality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following aspects with their corresponding definitions in relation to mental disorders:

    <p>Behavioral = Observable actions or reactions of an individual Emotional = Feelings or affective experiences of an individual Cognitive = Thought processes or mental activities of an individual Neurochemical = Biochemical or neural factors that influence mental disorders</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following aspects of depression with their corresponding descriptions:

    <p>Behavioral = Neglect of personal appearance, loss of appetite, disturbed sleep patterns (insomnia), loss of energy (tiredness), withdrawal from others Emotional = Intense sadness, irritability, apathy (loss of interest or enjoyment), feelings of worthlessness, and anger Cognitive = Negative thoughts, lack of concentration, low self-esteem, poor memory, recurrent thoughts of death, and low confidence Neurochemical = Biochemical abnormalities that are not specific to depression and may be true of other mental distress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following neurotransmitters with their effects on mental disorders:

    <p>Dopamine = High levels may cause OCD, while reduction is positively correlated with a reduction in OCD symptoms Serotonin = Low levels are found in various mental disorders, including OCD, and increasing levels can reduce OCD symptoms Other than Serotonin = Drugs that mainly affect these neurotransmitters are of little or no value in treating OCD Cognitive = Thought processes or mental activities of an individual</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following treatments with their corresponding impacts on mental disorders:

    <p>Psychological therapy (CBT) = A very successful treatment for mental disorders, including OCD Biological Treatment – Drugs = Two classes of drugs, SSRIs and SRIs, have proved effective in the treatment of OCD by increasing serotonin levels Antidepressant drugs = Can have side effects such as dry mouth, a slight tremor, fast heartbeat, constipation, sleepiness, and weight gain Cognitive Approach = Believes depression stems from faulty cognitions about others, our world, and us</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following genetic factors with their effects on Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD):

    <p>SERT gene mutation = Increase in the reuptake of serotonin in the neuron COMT gene mutation = Decrease in COMT activity and a higher level of dopamine Genes alone = Create vulnerability but do not determine who will develop OCD Concordance rates = Show that OCD is due to an interaction of genetic and other factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following neurotransmitters with their effects on Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD):

    <p>Serotonin = Chemical thought to be involved in regulating mood, OCD patients have low levels Dopamine = Abnormally high in individuals with OCD, may influence concentration Neurotransmitter imbalance = Could be related to OCD, such as reduced serotonin and excessive dopamine Serotonin and OCD = Related, but it is difficult to establish whether low serotonin causes OCD or is merely associated</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following brain regions with their roles in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD):

    <p>Prefrontal cortex (PFC) = Involved in decision-making and the regulation of primitive aspects of behavior Overactive PFC = Causes an exaggerated control of primal impulses, such as OCD symptoms PFC activation = Reduces after performing appropriate behavior, leading to cessation of OCD symptoms Brain scans of OCD patients = Reliably show increased activity in the PFC</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following aspects with their examples in the context of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD):

    <p>Behavioral aspect = Washing hands repeatedly to remove germs Cognitive aspect = Inability to stop focusing on obsessive thoughts Emotional aspect = Feeling of intense anxiety when unable to perform compulsions Genetic aspect = Concordance rates and involvement of specific genes in OCD development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following genetic factors with their effect on OCD:

    <p>SERT gene mutation = Increase in serotonin reuptake COMT gene mutation = Increase in dopamine level Genes = Create vulnerability to OCD Nurture = Treat identical twins similarly, increasing concordance rate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following neurotransmitters with their role in OCD:

    <p>Serotonin = Regulating mood, low levels in OCD patients Dopamine = Influence concentration, high levels in individuals with OCD Neurotransmitters = Role in causing or effecting OCD is unknown Serotonin and Dopamine = Imbalance related to OCD</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following brain regions with their role in OCD:

    <p>Prefrontal cortex (PFC) = Involved in decision-making, over-activated in OCD patients Brain scans of OCD patients = Reliably show increased activity in the PFC Neurons = Part of the neural mechanisms involved in sending messages Brain = Structured and function differently in OCD patients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following explanations of abnormality with their characteristics:

    <p>Biological Explanations = Reductionist, deterministic Genetic Explanations = Polygenic condition, involvement of several genes Neural Explanations = Refer to brain regions, structures, neurotransmitters Social Learning Theory = Cultural transmission, observation and imitation of behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Abnormality Definitions

    • Statistical Infrequency: Abnormality is defined as a rare or statistically unusual trait, thought, or behavior.
      • Limitations: Fails to recognize the desirability of the behavior, and abnormal behavior is not always unusual.
    • Deviation from Social Norms: Abnormality is defined as a violation of social norms, rules, and expectations.
      • Strengths: Comprehensive, covers a broad range of criteria, and offers a social dimension to abnormality.
      • Limitations: Social norms vary between cultures, and norms can change over time.
    • Failure to Function Adequately: Abnormality is defined as the inability to perform daily functions, such as holding a job, maintaining relationships, and personal care.
      • Strengths: Provides a practical checklist, matches sufferers' perceptions, and supports the definition.
      • Limitations: May not be linked to abnormality, and cultural relativism is a limitation.
    • Deviation from Ideal Mental Health: Abnormality is defined as the absence of characteristics necessary for ideal mental health, such as self-awareness, rational thinking, and emotional maturity.
      • Limitations: Difficulty in meeting all criteria, cultural relativism, and few people meet the criteria.

    Cognitive Approach to Depression

    • Beck's Negative Triad: Depression is characterized by negative thoughts about the self, the world, and the future.
      • Strengths: Explains how negative thinking can contribute to depression.
      • Limitations: Ignores genetic factors, social factors, and the role of life events in depression.

    Ellis' ABC Model

    • Albert Ellis' ABC Model: Depression is caused by irrational beliefs triggered by negative events, leading to depressive behavior.
      • Strengths: Highlights the role of cognitive processes in depression.
      • Limitations: The precise role of cognitive processes is yet to be determined.

    OCD Characteristics

    • Biological Approach: OCD is characterized by intrusive thoughts, repetitive behaviors, and anxiety.
      • Cognitive: Obsessions dominate one's thinking, and are persistent and recurrent.
      • Emotional: Obsessive thoughts lead to anxiety, worry, and distress.
      • Behavioral: Compulsions are repetitive behaviors intended to neutralize obsessions.

    Biological Explanations of OCD

    • Genetic Explanations: OCD is a polygenic condition, and genetic factors contribute to its development.
      • Strengths: Genetic factors are moderately important, and twin studies support the involvement of genetic factors.
      • Limitations: Genes alone do not determine who will develop OCD, and other factors must trigger the disorder.
    • Neural Explanations: OCD is related to abnormalities in brain regions, structures, and neurotransmitters, such as the prefrontal cortex, serotonin, and dopamine.
      • Strengths: Brain scans of OCD patients show increased activity in the PFC, and low serotonin and high dopamine levels are associated with OCD.
      • Limitations: The direction of causality is unknown, and individual differences are not accounted for.### Biological Treatment of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
    • Two classes of drugs have been effective in treating OCD: Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SRIs) and Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)
    • Both classes of drugs increase serotonin levels, supporting the neural explanation/biochemical hypothesis
    • Drugs that mainly affect neurotransmitters other than serotonin are of little or no value in treating OCD
    • Studies have shown a reduction in dopamine levels is positively correlated with a reduction in OCD symptoms
    • SSRIs have been shown to reduce OCD symptoms, with a significant improvement in symptoms compared to placebos

    Cognitive Approach to Depression

    • Depression is a mood or affective disorder characterized by a collection of physical, emotional, mental, and behavioral experiences
    • The criteria for depression diagnosis using the DSM-IV-TR includes at least five or more symptoms, including:
      • Behavioral: neglect of personal appearance, loss of appetite, disturbed sleep patterns, loss of energy, and withdrawal from others
      • Emotional: intense sadness, irritability, apathy, feelings of worthlessness, and anger
      • Cognitive: negative thoughts, lack of concentration, low self-esteem, poor memory, and recurrent thoughts of death
    • The cognitive approach believes depression stems from faulty cognitions about others, the world, and us
    • Cognitive therapies, such as Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), aim to change the way a person thinks, leading to a change in behavior

    Definitions of Abnormality

    • Statistical Infrequency: a person's trait, thinking, or behavior is classified as abnormal if it is rare or statistically unusual
    • Deviation from Social Norms: a person's thinking or behavior is classified as abnormal if it violates the (unwritten) rules about what is expected or acceptable behavior in a particular social group
    • Failure to Function Adequately: a person's thinking or behavior is classified as abnormal if it prevents them from carrying out the range of behaviors that society would expect
    • Deviation from Ideal Mental Health: a person's thinking or behavior is classified as abnormal if it deviates from ideal mental health, characterized by six criteria, including:
      • Self-acceptance
      • Reality contact
      • Environmental mastery
      • Purpose in life
      • Autonomy
      • Positive relations with others

    Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

    • OCD is an anxiety disorder characterized by intrusive and uncontrollable thoughts (obsessions) coupled with a need to perform specific acts repeatedly (compulsions)
    • Common clinical obsessions include fear of contamination, repetitive thoughts of violence, sexual obsessions, and obsessive doubt
    • Compulsions are the behavioral responses intended to neutralize these obsessions
    • OCD can be characterized by cognitive, emotional, and behavioral symptoms, including:
      • Cognitive: persistent and recurrent thoughts, images, or beliefs
      • Emotional: anxiety, worry, and distress
      • Behavioral: repetitive behavioral responses, such as cleaning, washing, checking, counting, and touching

    Biological Approach to OCD

    • OCD seems to be a polygenic condition, where several genes are involved in its development
    • Family and twin studies suggest the involvement of genetic factors
    • The SERT gene (Serotonin Transporter) and the COMT gene (Catechol-O-Methyltransferase) appear to be mutated in individuals with OCD, leading to an imbalance in neurotransmitters
    • Neural mechanisms, such as an overactive prefrontal cortex (PFC), may also be involved in OCD
    • Abnormalities in the neurotransmitters serotonin and dopamine may also be related to OCD

    Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) for OCD

    • CBT aims to change the way a person thinks, leading to a change in behavior

    • CBT can be effective in reducing OCD symptoms by challenging irrational and maladaptive thought processes### OCD and Biochemistry

    • The relationship between high dopamine levels and OCD is unclear, and it's unknown whether high dopamine levels cause OCD or if OCD is caused by something else.

    • The biochemistry hypothesis does not account for individual differences because low serotonin levels are also found in other mental disorders.

    Biological Treatment for OCD

    • Two classes of drugs, serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SRIs) and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), have proven effective in treating OCD.
    • Both classes of drugs increase serotonin levels, supporting the biochemical hypothesis.
    • Drugs that mainly affect neurotransmitters other than serotonin are of little or no value in treating OCD.
    • Studies have shown a reduction in dopamine levels is positively correlated with a reduction in OCD symptoms.
    • Experiments that inject animals with drugs that increase dopamine levels have caused OCD-type behaviors.

    Cognitive Approach to Depression

    • Depression is a mood or affective disorder characterized by a collection of physical, emotional, mental, and behavioral experiences that are severe, prolonged, and damaging to everyday functioning.
    • The cognitive approach believes depression stems from faulty cognitions about others, the world, and oneself.
    • These cognitions may be through cognitive deficiencies (lack of planning) or cognitive distortions (processing information inaccurately).

    Beck's Negative Triad

    • The cognitive triad is three forms of negative thinking that are typical of individuals with depression: negative thoughts about the self, the world, and the future.
    • These thoughts tend to be automatic in depressed people and occur spontaneously.
    • The negative triad interacts with negative schemas and cognitive biases to produce depressive thinking.

    Cognitive Biases and Schemas

    • Cognitive biases are distortions of thought processes, and individuals with depression are prone to making logical errors in their thinking.
    • Schemas can be seen as deeply held beliefs that have their origins primarily in childhood.
    • Beck believed that depression-prone individuals develop a negative self-schema, which influences how they interpret events and experiences in their life.

    Limitations of the Cognitive Approach

    • The cognitive approach is limited in that it ignores genetic factors and pays little attention to the role of social factors relating to life events and gender in the explanation of depression.
    • It's unclear whether negative thinking is a cause or effect of depression.

    Ellis' ABC Model

    • Albert Ellis proposes that depression is produced by irrational thoughts (i.e., beliefs) triggered by negative events.
    • It's not the activating event (A) that causes depression (C) but rather the person's irrational belief system (B) that helps cause the consequences (C) of depressive behavior.

    Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

    • Cognitive behavioral therapy aims to change the way a client thinks by challenging irrational and maladaptive thought processes, leading to a change in behavior as a response to new thinking patterns.
    • The therapy focuses on changing negative – and unrealistic – thoughts to reduce distress and problem behaviors.

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    Test your knowledge on Beck's Negative Triad and its connection to depression. Learn about the three forms of negative thinking and how they impact one's perception of the self, the world, and the future.

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