Psychology Unit 7: Memory

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Questions and Answers

What does the Ebbinghaus curve of forgetting suggest about memory recall?

The amount of time lost remembering information increases exponentially over time.

The amount of information retained levels off after an initial period of rapid forgetting. (correct)

Forgetting occurs most rapidly at the beginning of the learning process.

Forgetting occurs most rapidly at the end of the learning process.

Which type of encoding focuses on the meaning and significance of information?

Visual Encoding

Spatial Encoding

Semantic Encoding (correct)

Acoustic Encoding

In the context of memory, what does the 'Spacing Effect' refer to?

The phenomenon where distributed practice leads to better retention than massed practice. (correct)

The ability to retrieve memories that are relevant to a specific mood or emotional state.

The tendency to remember the first and last items in a list more easily than the ones in the middle.

The process of grouping similar items together to enhance recall.

What does the 'network model of long-term memory' describe?

The way memories are organized as a network of interconnected nodes and links. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of flashbulb memories?

Highly accurate and resistant to forgetting over time. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind the 'Encoding Specificity Principle'?

Retrieval of information is enhanced when the context at retrieval matches the context at encoding. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which statement BEST explains the 'Mood-Congruent Memory' phenomenon?

Memories associated with a specific emotion are more likely to be retrieved when you are in that same emotional state. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What effect describes the tendency to recall the first items on a list more easily than middle items?

Primacy Effect (B) Signup and view all the answers

What refers to the strengthening of neural connections when neurons are repeatedly used?

Long-Term Potentiation (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic shared by all languages?

Phonetics (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is the smallest unit of meaning in a language?

Morpheme (C) Signup and view all the answers

Who proposed the idea that humans are born with a universal grammar?

Noam Chomsky (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is associated with the ability to understand speech?

Wernicke's Area (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of syntax?

The sentence "The cat sat on the mat" follows a subject-verb-object structure. (D) Signup and view all the answers

According to the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis, what is the relationship between language and thought?

Language influences thought. (D) Signup and view all the answers

According to the Nativist Theory of language acquisition, what is the primary factor in language development?

Biological predisposition (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is the critical period for language acquisition, according to Noam Chomsky?

7 to 10 years old (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes "deep structure" in language?

The underlying meaning conveyed by a sentence (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a component of prosody?

Syntax (B) Signup and view all the answers

What processes are involved in the Information Processing Theory of Memory?

Encoding, Storing, Retrieving (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which type of memory briefly holds an exact copy of incoming sensory information?

Sensory Memory (B) Signup and view all the answers

How much information can Short Term Memory typically hold at once?

5-9 bits (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is maintenance rehearsal primarily focused on?

Repeating information to keep it in consciousness (C) Signup and view all the answers

What type of processing involves transferring information from Short Term Memory to Long Term Memory with little effort?

Automatic Processing (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which rehearsal technique connects new information with existing knowledge?

Elaborative Rehearsal (C) Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon might occur if we don't perceive certain information as important?

Encoding Failure (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about retrieval from long-term memory is true?

It can be influenced by various factors. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which type of memory allows for procedural skills without conscious recall?

Implicit Memory (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the process of identifying previously learned information with the aid of external cues?

Recognition (C) Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory problem is described by linking a memory with the wrong source, time, or place?

Misattribution (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which cognitive strategy guarantees a solution to a problem through a systematic procedure?

Algorithm (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the tendency to hold onto initial beliefs despite contradictory evidence called?

Belief Perseverance (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which memory sin refers to the fading of stored information over time?

Transience (A) Signup and view all the answers

What type of cognitive processing involves going from specific facts to general principles?

Inductive Thought (B) Signup and view all the answers

In what way does functional fixedness hinder problem-solving abilities?

By limiting the perceived uses of an object (C) Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of creative thinking describes the total number of suggestions made?

Fluency (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which cognitive strategy might lead to errors by oversimplifying the range of potential solutions?

Heuristic (B) Signup and view all the answers

What cognitive process is heavily based on prior experiences and existing prototypes?

Representative Heuristic (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT one of Sternberg's components of creative thinking?

Cognitive Flexibility (B) Signup and view all the answers

How does framing affect problem-solving processes?

By changing the way a problem is understood (D) Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Unit 7: Memory

Memory is an active system that stores, organizes, alters, and receives information.
Memory is selective, retaining some information and not others.
This is similar to perception.

Information Processing Theory of Memory

Encoding: Getting information into the memory system.
Storage: Retaining encoded information over time.
Retrieval: Pulling information out of storage.
Memory failure can occur at any stage.

A Simplified Model of Memory

Sensory Memory: Briefly holds an exact copy of incoming sensory information.
- Iconic memory: Visual sensory memory (½ second).
- Echoic memory: Auditory sensory memory.
Short-Term (Working) Memory: Conscious, limited-capacity memory.
- Holds approximately 7 bits of information for 20-30 seconds.
- Vulnerable to interference.

Encoding Information

Effortful Processing: Conscious encoding strategies (e.g., rehearsal).
- Maintenance rehearsal: Repeating information.
- Elaborative rehearsal: Linking new information with existing knowledge.
- Distributed rehearsal: Spreading out studying over time (better than massed rehearsal).
Automatic Processing: Encoding without conscious effort.
- Order of events, time, novel stimuli.

Encoding Types

Acoustic Encoding: Encoding by sound.
Visual Encoding: Encoding by images.
Semantic Encoding: Focusing on meaning.

Long-Term Memory

Encoding Failure: Information not encoded into LTM.
Rehearsal: Repetition for better encoding.
Maintenance rehearsal: Repeating to maintain STM.
Elaborative rehearsal: Linking new information to existing knowledge.
Distributed practice: Better encoding than massed practice.

Long-Term Memory Retrieval

Retrieval cues: Pieces of information encoded during learning that aid recall.
Serial position effect: Easier to recall first and last items on a list; primary and recency effects.
Encoding specificity principle: Memory retrieval best when the retrieval context matches the encoding context.

Forgetting

Ebbinghaus curve of forgetting: Forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off.
Ebbinghaus Retention Curve: Distributed practice results in better long-term retention than massed practice.
Interference: Learning one item disrupting the consolidation of another.
- Proactive interference: Earlier learning disrupts later learning.
- Retroactive interference: Later learning disrupts earlier learning.

Mood-Congruent Memory/State-Dependent Learning

Mood-congruent memory: Easier to recall memories consistent with current mood.
State-dependent learning: Recall enhancement when retrieval state matches encoding state.

Long-Term Potentiation

Strengthening of neural pathways through repeated use.
Synaptic plasticity: Repeated stimulation increases synapse firing potential.

Network Model of LTM

Nodes representing related ideas connected in a network hierarchy.
Memory redintegration: Reconstructing memories by connecting associated memories.

Constructive Processing/ Misinformation Effect

Constructive processing: Updating memories based on logic or new information.
Misinformation effect: Introduced misleading information affects memory.
Misinformation effect: Introducing misleading information into memory, causing misremembering.

Flashbulb Memories

Vivid and detailed memories of significant emotional events.
Strong emotions lead to stronger memories.

Explicit vs. Implicit Memory

Explicit (declarative): Conscious memory of facts and experiences.
Implicit (nondeclarative): Unconscious memory of skills and responses.

Source Amnesia/Infantile Amnesia

Recall vs. Recognition

Recall: Retrieving information without cues.
Recognition: Identifying information with cues.

Improving Memory

Spacing effect: Distributed practice aids long-term retention.

Seven Sins of Memory

Transience: Fading of stored information over time.
Absent-mindedness: Weak encoding leading to forgetfulness.
Blocking: Inability to recall needed information.
Misattribution: Assigning memory to the wrong source.
Suggestibility: Misinformation alters memories.
Bias: Memory distortion based on beliefs and expectations.
Persistence: Inability to forget unwanted memories.

Basic Elements of Cognition

Mental images
Mental concepts (schemas)
Language

Thinking in Mental Images/Concepts

Procedural memory and mental visualization can improve skills and performance.
Concepts organize information, enabling judgments about seen objects.

Prototypes

Prototypes represent typical examples of concepts.

Insight

Sudden realization of a problem's solution.

Obstacles to Problem Solving

Framing: Problem presentation influences thinking.
Functional fixedness: Inability to think of an object's unusual uses.
Overconfidence: Excessive faith in judgments.

Problem-Solving Strategies

Trial and error: Trying various solutions.
Algorithm: Step-by-step systematic procedure guaranteeing a solution.
Heuristic: Strategy limiting possible solutions (shortcut).

Representative Heuristic/Availability Heuristic

Representative heuristic: Judging likelihood based on category prototypes.
Availability heuristic: Judging probability based on ease of recalling instances.

Patterns of Thinking

Inductive: From specific to general.
Deductive: From general to specific.

Creativity

Fluency: Number of suggestions.
Flexibility: Shifting from one class of uses to another.
Originality: Uniqueness of suggestions.

Sternberg's 5 Components of Creativity

Expertise
Imaginative thinking skills
Venturesome personality
Intrinsic motivation
Creative environment

Convergent vs. Divergent Thinking

Convergent: Single correct solution.
Divergent: Multiple possible solutions (creative).

Language

Linguistic relativity hypothesis (Whorf): Language shapes thought and perception.
Semanticity: meaningful communication.
Generativity: combination of words for new meanings.
Displacement: Ability to discuss absent objects.

Basic Elements of Language

Phoneme: Smallest units of sound.
Morpheme: Smallest unit of meaning.
Grammar: Rules for combining sounds and words.
Syntax: Word arrangement rules.
Semantics: Meaning criteria.

Language and the Brain

Wernicke's area: Speech comprehension.
Broca's area: Speech production.

Language Acquisition Theories

Behavioral theory (Skinner): Learning through nurture.
Nativist theory (Chomsky): Nature-based universal grammar.

Noam Chomsky's Theory of Language

Surface structure: Sentence words and phrases.
Deep structure: Underlying meaning.

Key Figures

Elizabeth Loftus: Misinformation and memory construction.
Benjamin Lee Whorf: Linguistic relativity.
Noam Chomsky: Language acquisition theories.
B.F. Skinner: Behavioral theory of language acquisition.

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Description

Explore the complexities of memory in this quiz covering encoding, storage, and retrieval processes. Understand sensory memory and the role of effortful processing in retaining information. Test your knowledge on how memory functions actively to organize and manipulate information.