Psychology Unit 7: Memory

Unit 7: Memory

• Memory is an active system that stores, organizes, alters, and receives information.
• Memory is selective, retaining some information and not others.
• This is similar to perception.

Information Processing Theory of Memory

• Encoding: Getting information into the memory system.
• Storage: Retaining encoded information over time.
• Retrieval: Pulling information out of storage.
• Memory failure can occur at any stage.

A Simplified Model of Memory

• Sensory Memory: Briefly holds an exact copy of incoming sensory information.

  • Iconic memory: Visual sensory memory (½ second).
  • Echoic memory: Auditory sensory memory.

• Short-Term (Working) Memory: Conscious, limited-capacity memory.

  • Holds approximately 7 bits of information for 20-30 seconds.
  • Vulnerable to interference.

Encoding Information

• Effortful Processing: Conscious encoding strategies (e.g., rehearsal).

  • Maintenance rehearsal: Repeating information.
  • Elaborative rehearsal: Linking new information with existing knowledge.
  • Distributed rehearsal: Spreading out studying over time (better than massed rehearsal).

• Automatic Processing: Encoding without conscious effort.

  • Order of events, time, novel stimuli.

Encoding Types

• Acoustic Encoding: Encoding by sound.
• Visual Encoding: Encoding by images.
• Semantic Encoding: Focusing on meaning.

Long-Term Memory

• Encoding Failure: Information not encoded into LTM.
• Rehearsal: Repetition for better encoding.
• Maintenance rehearsal: Repeating to maintain STM.
• Elaborative rehearsal: Linking new information to existing knowledge.
• Distributed practice: Better encoding than massed practice.

Long-Term Memory Retrieval

• Retrieval cues: Pieces of information encoded during learning that aid recall.
• Serial position effect: Easier to recall first and last items on a list; primary and recency effects.
• Encoding specificity principle: Memory retrieval best when the retrieval context matches the encoding context.

Forgetting

• Ebbinghaus curve of forgetting: Forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off.
• Ebbinghaus Retention Curve: Distributed practice results in better long-term retention than massed practice.
• Interference: Learning one item disrupting the consolidation of another.
  • Proactive interference: Earlier learning disrupts later learning.
  • Retroactive interference: Later learning disrupts earlier learning.

Mood-Congruent Memory/State-Dependent Learning

• Mood-congruent memory: Easier to recall memories consistent with current mood.
• State-dependent learning: Recall enhancement when retrieval state matches encoding state.

Long-Term Potentiation

• Strengthening of neural pathways through repeated use.
• Synaptic plasticity: Repeated stimulation increases synapse firing potential.

Network Model of LTM

• Nodes representing related ideas connected in a network hierarchy.
• Memory redintegration: Reconstructing memories by connecting associated memories.

Constructive Processing/ Misinformation Effect

• Constructive processing: Updating memories based on logic or new information.
• Misinformation effect: Introduced misleading information affects memory.
• Misinformation effect: Introducing misleading information into memory, causing misremembering.

Flashbulb Memories

• Vivid and detailed memories of significant emotional events.
• Strong emotions lead to stronger memories.

Explicit vs. Implicit Memory

• Explicit (declarative): Conscious memory of facts and experiences.
• Implicit (nondeclarative): Unconscious memory of skills and responses.

Source Amnesia/Infantile Amnesia

Recall vs. Recognition

• Recall: Retrieving information without cues.
• Recognition: Identifying information with cues.

Improving Memory

• Spacing effect: Distributed practice aids long-term retention.

Seven Sins of Memory

• Transience: Fading of stored information over time.
• Absent-mindedness: Weak encoding leading to forgetfulness.
• Blocking: Inability to recall needed information.
• Misattribution: Assigning memory to the wrong source.
• Suggestibility: Misinformation alters memories.
• Bias: Memory distortion based on beliefs and expectations.
• Persistence: Inability to forget unwanted memories.

Basic Elements of Cognition

• Mental images
• Mental concepts (schemas)
• Language

Thinking in Mental Images/Concepts

• Procedural memory and mental visualization can improve skills and performance.
• Concepts organize information, enabling judgments about seen objects.

Prototypes

• Prototypes represent typical examples of concepts.

Insight

• Sudden realization of a problem's solution.

Obstacles to Problem Solving

• Framing: Problem presentation influences thinking.
• Functional fixedness: Inability to think of an object's unusual uses.
• Overconfidence: Excessive faith in judgments.

Problem-Solving Strategies

• Trial and error: Trying various solutions.
• Algorithm: Step-by-step systematic procedure guaranteeing a solution.
• Heuristic: Strategy limiting possible solutions (shortcut).

Representative Heuristic/Availability Heuristic

• Representative heuristic: Judging likelihood based on category prototypes.
• Availability heuristic: Judging probability based on ease of recalling instances.

Patterns of Thinking

• Inductive: From specific to general.
• Deductive: From general to specific.

Creativity

• Fluency: Number of suggestions.
• Flexibility: Shifting from one class of uses to another.
• Originality: Uniqueness of suggestions.

Sternberg's 5 Components of Creativity

• Expertise
• Imaginative thinking skills
• Venturesome personality
• Intrinsic motivation
• Creative environment

Convergent vs. Divergent Thinking

• Convergent: Single correct solution.
• Divergent: Multiple possible solutions (creative).

Language

• Linguistic relativity hypothesis (Whorf): Language shapes thought and perception.
• Semanticity: meaningful communication.
• Generativity: combination of words for new meanings.
• Displacement: Ability to discuss absent objects.

Basic Elements of Language

• Phoneme: Smallest units of sound.
• Morpheme: Smallest unit of meaning.
• Grammar: Rules for combining sounds and words.
• Syntax: Word arrangement rules.
• Semantics: Meaning criteria.

Language and the Brain

• Wernicke's area: Speech comprehension.
• Broca's area: Speech production.

Language Acquisition Theories

• Behavioral theory (Skinner): Learning through nurture.
• Nativist theory (Chomsky): Nature-based universal grammar.

Noam Chomsky's Theory of Language

• Surface structure: Sentence words and phrases.
• Deep structure: Underlying meaning.

Key Figures

• Elizabeth Loftus: Misinformation and memory construction.
• Benjamin Lee Whorf: Linguistic relativity.
• Noam Chomsky: Language acquisition theories.
• B.F. Skinner: Behavioral theory of language acquisition.