Memory Systems in Psychology

Memory

• Memory is the process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.
• Encoding involves converting sensory information into a neural code that the brain can process and store.
• Storage refers to the retention of encoded information over time.
• Retrieval involves accessing stored information and bringing it into conscious awareness.
• Different types of memory systems exist, including sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
• Sensory memory holds information briefly, less than a few seconds, and is crucial for maintaining awareness of our immediate surroundings.
• Short-term memory (STM) holds information for a few seconds to minutes, and has limited capacity. It is also known as working memory, as it plays a role in manipulating and processing information.
• Long-term memory (LTM) stores information relatively permanently and indefinitely. It has a vast capacity.
• LTM can be further subdivided into explicit (declarative) memory and implicit (non-declarative) memory.
• Explicit memory involves conscious recollection of facts and events (episodic and semantic memory).
• Implicit memory involves unconscious influences on behavior; this includes procedural, priming, and classical conditioning.
• Factors affecting memory include attention, motivation, emotional state, and prior knowledge.
• Forgetting can result from various factors, such as decay (storage failure), interference (new or old information interfering with recall), or retrieval failure (difficulty in accessing stored information).
• Techniques to enhance memory include mnemonics, repetition, and elaborative rehearsal.

Perception

• Perception is the process by which sensory information is organized and interpreted.
• It involves the detection, selection, and organization of sensory stimuli into meaningful patterns.
• Bottom-up processing involves processing sensory information from the stimulus itself, whereas top-down processing involves prior knowledge, expectations, and context in interpreting sensory stimuli.
• Perception is influenced by factors such as attention, motivation, expectations, and cultural background.
• Different sensory modalities (vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell) each have distinct mechanisms and characteristics, but they share processing patterns.
• Visual perception involves processing light patterns to produce a representation of the world, including depth perception, shape recognition, and object recognition.
• Auditory perception involves processing sound waves to identify different sounds, including pitch, loudness, and timbre.
• Touch perception involves receiving information about pressure, temperature, and pain; these sensations help determine the properties of objects.
• Taste perception involves detecting various tastes through taste receptors located on the tongue; and smell perception involves detecting various airborne molecules that stimulate olfactory receptors.

Development

• Development is a systematic process of growth and change over the lifespan.
• Development encompasses physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes.
• Physical development refers to changes in the body's structure and function.
• Cognitive development involves changes in thinking processes, language abilities, and problem-solving skills.
• Psychosocial development refers to changes in social interaction, relationships, emotions, and personality.
• Developmental theories propose frameworks to understand the patterns and processes of development, including Piaget's stages of cognitive development, Erikson's psychosocial stages, and Vygotsky's sociocultural theory.
• Research on human development has implications for education, healthcare, social policy, and parenting practices.

Research Methods

• Research methods are systematic procedures used to study a phenomenon or test a hypothesis.
• Research methods can be broadly categorized as qualitative and quantitative.
• Qualitative research methods focus on in-depth understanding and description of a phenomenon. Techniques used include observations, interviews, focus groups, and case studies.
• Quantitative methods focus on numerical data collection and analysis to test hypotheses and draw generalizations. Techniques used include surveys, experiments, and correlational studies.
• Experimental research involves manipulating one or more independent variables to observe their effect on a dependent variable, while controlling for other potential factors.
• Correlational research examines the relationships between two or more variables without manipulating them; it aims to determine the degree of association between the variables, and not causation.
• Observational research involves systematic observation of behavior in natural or controlled settings.
• Surveys involve collecting data from a large sample of participants using questionnaires or interviews.
• Case studies involve in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or event.
• Validity and reliability are crucial considerations when evaluating research findings. Validity refers to the extent to which a study measures what it intends to measure, whereas reliability refers to the consistency of the findings.
• Ethical considerations are essential when conducting research, focusing on minimizing harm to participants and ensuring informed consent.
• Replication is essential to verify the findings of a research study.