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Questions and Answers
What is the definition of CS; US?
What is the definition of CS; US?
- Secondary reinforcer; operant behavior
- CS; US (correct)
- Negative reinforcer; operant behavior
- UR; CS
What happened after Watson classically conditioned 'Little Albert' to fear a tame white rat?
What happened after Watson classically conditioned 'Little Albert' to fear a tame white rat?
Generalization occurred: Albert responded with fear to other furry animals and fuzzy objects.
According to psychologists, learning is defined as:
According to psychologists, learning is defined as:
- A relatively enduring behavior change that occurs due to experience (correct)
- Can only occur in humans
- Only involves reflex behavior
- Only occurs through observational learning
In Pavlov's experiment with dogs, salivating in response to the bell after associating the bell with food is called a(n):
In Pavlov's experiment with dogs, salivating in response to the bell after associating the bell with food is called a(n):
Which psychologist is known for the quote about training individuals regardless of their talents?
Which psychologist is known for the quote about training individuals regardless of their talents?
People and animals learn the association between two stimuli through _____ conditioning.
People and animals learn the association between two stimuli through _____ conditioning.
With classical conditioning, an organism comes to associate:
With classical conditioning, an organism comes to associate:
After John Watson lost his professorship, which career did he enter?
After John Watson lost his professorship, which career did he enter?
Marshall's nausea when he saw the hamburger after previously feeling ill is an example of:
Marshall's nausea when he saw the hamburger after previously feeling ill is an example of:
What phenomenon was Pavlov focusing on when he began his studies on classical conditioning?
What phenomenon was Pavlov focusing on when he began his studies on classical conditioning?
In Watson and Rayner's experiment with Little Albert, the conditioned stimulus (CS) used to produce fear was:
In Watson and Rayner's experiment with Little Albert, the conditioned stimulus (CS) used to produce fear was:
What type of conditioning is Dan using to train his dog Rocket?
What type of conditioning is Dan using to train his dog Rocket?
What is the term for the reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response?
What is the term for the reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response?
Watson and Rayner taught 'Little Albert' to fear white rats by:
Watson and Rayner taught 'Little Albert' to fear white rats by:
Malia's nausea when she saw the hamburger is an example of what type of conditioning?
Malia's nausea when she saw the hamburger is an example of what type of conditioning?
John B. Watson believed that psychology should be the science of:
John B. Watson believed that psychology should be the science of:
One of Pavlov's major contributions to psychology was to show how:
One of Pavlov's major contributions to psychology was to show how:
Which concept best describes Jill learning how to play tennis?
Which concept best describes Jill learning how to play tennis?
In classical conditioning, this is the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US):
In classical conditioning, this is the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US):
In Watson and Rayner's experiment with Little Albert, the _____ was the unconditioned response (UR).
In Watson and Rayner's experiment with Little Albert, the _____ was the unconditioned response (UR).
Classical and operant conditioning involves learning through _____, whereas observational learning involves learning through _____.
Classical and operant conditioning involves learning through _____, whereas observational learning involves learning through _____.
In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) after association with what?
In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) after association with what?
In Watson and Rayner's experiment with Little Albert, the _____ was the conditioned response (CR).
In Watson and Rayner's experiment with Little Albert, the _____ was the conditioned response (CR).
In psychology, the term conditioning refers to:
In psychology, the term conditioning refers to:
In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus is called the:
In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus is called the:
People and animals learn about the consequences of behavior through _____ conditioning.
People and animals learn about the consequences of behavior through _____ conditioning.
Both Watson and Pavlov believed that psychology should study only _____ and _____ psychological phenomena.
Both Watson and Pavlov believed that psychology should study only _____ and _____ psychological phenomena.
In classical conditioning, we learn to associate:
In classical conditioning, we learn to associate:
Pavlov found that spontaneous recovery occurred after a conditioned response was extinguished if:
Pavlov found that spontaneous recovery occurred after a conditioned response was extinguished if:
Before the bell was presented, Pavlov's dog salivated each time food was presented. The _____ in this situation is salivation.
Before the bell was presented, Pavlov's dog salivated each time food was presented. The _____ in this situation is salivation.
What is the unconditioned response from the chemotherapy experienced by Jane?
What is the unconditioned response from the chemotherapy experienced by Jane?
In classical and operant conditioning, we learn through _____, whereas observational learning involves _____ learning.
In classical and operant conditioning, we learn through _____, whereas observational learning involves _____ learning.
After Watson classically conditioned 'Little Albert', what occurred?
After Watson classically conditioned 'Little Albert', what occurred?
What is the unconditioned stimulus in Jane's case of nausea and chemotherapy?
What is the unconditioned stimulus in Jane's case of nausea and chemotherapy?
What is the tendency to respond similarly to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus?
What is the tendency to respond similarly to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus?
According to classical conditioning principles, what is the unconditioned stimulus in Marcus's bee sting scenario?
According to classical conditioning principles, what is the unconditioned stimulus in Marcus's bee sting scenario?
What is NOT one of the significant findings from Pavlov's research?
What is NOT one of the significant findings from Pavlov's research?
John's action of driving his car to work instead of the golf course exemplifies:
John's action of driving his car to work instead of the golf course exemplifies:
In the conditioning of a flatworm by researchers, what is the electric shock classified as?
In the conditioning of a flatworm by researchers, what is the electric shock classified as?
What is the purpose of shaping in Skinner's conditioning process?
What is the purpose of shaping in Skinner's conditioning process?
The cognitive processes involve the expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished are associated with which type of conditioning?
The cognitive processes involve the expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished are associated with which type of conditioning?
In Rescorla and Wagner's experiment, how did they explain the conditioned fear response?
In Rescorla and Wagner's experiment, how did they explain the conditioned fear response?
What is the main difference between punishment and reinforcement?
What is the main difference between punishment and reinforcement?
What does B.F. Skinner believe shapes behavior?
What does B.F. Skinner believe shapes behavior?
What is the definition of external?
What is the definition of external?
Children who are promised a payoff for playing with an interesting toy have later been observed to play with the toy less than those who are not promised the reward. These findings provide support for the role of _____ in operant behavior.
Children who are promised a payoff for playing with an interesting toy have later been observed to play with the toy less than those who are not promised the reward. These findings provide support for the role of _____ in operant behavior.
According to B.F. Skinner, what determines a person's behavior?
According to B.F. Skinner, what determines a person's behavior?
Who showed that an animal can learn the predictability of an event in a 1972 classical conditioning study?
Who showed that an animal can learn the predictability of an event in a 1972 classical conditioning study?
What type of reinforcement involves the removal of an aversive stimulus after a response?
What type of reinforcement involves the removal of an aversive stimulus after a response?
What does the concept of latent learning demonstrate?
What does the concept of latent learning demonstrate?
_____ involves any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
_____ involves any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
Who challenged the idea that natural behavior patterns do not affect operant conditioning principles?
Who challenged the idea that natural behavior patterns do not affect operant conditioning principles?
With continuous reinforcement, an organism is reinforced _____; with intermittent reinforcement, an organism is reinforced _____.
With continuous reinforcement, an organism is reinforced _____; with intermittent reinforcement, an organism is reinforced _____.
Which of the following processes does NOT apply to both classical and operant conditioning?
Which of the following processes does NOT apply to both classical and operant conditioning?
Today's learning theorists recognize that our learning results from an interaction of _____ influences.
Today's learning theorists recognize that our learning results from an interaction of _____ influences.
Which statement about B.F. Skinner's beliefs is true?
Which statement about B.F. Skinner's beliefs is true?
Robert Rescorla's research demonstrated the importance of _____ in classical conditioning.
Robert Rescorla's research demonstrated the importance of _____ in classical conditioning.
Nanette's daughter received a time-out for throwing her toys. This is an example of:
Nanette's daughter received a time-out for throwing her toys. This is an example of:
What stimulus did B.F. Skinner believe was the best way to shape desirable behavior?
What stimulus did B.F. Skinner believe was the best way to shape desirable behavior?
Latent learning is:
Latent learning is:
A word of praise is to a delicious meal as a conditioned reinforcer is to a(n) _____ reinforcer.
A word of praise is to a delicious meal as a conditioned reinforcer is to a(n) _____ reinforcer.
While classical conditioning involves the conditioning of _____ behavior, operant conditioning involves the conditioning of _____ behavior.
While classical conditioning involves the conditioning of _____ behavior, operant conditioning involves the conditioning of _____ behavior.
Which psychologist proposed a cognitive explanation of classical conditioning?
Which psychologist proposed a cognitive explanation of classical conditioning?
Fill in the blank: A word of praise is to a soothing back rub as _____ is to _____.
Fill in the blank: A word of praise is to a soothing back rub as _____ is to _____.
In _____ conditioning, natural predispositions constrain what stimuli and responses can easily be associated.
In _____ conditioning, natural predispositions constrain what stimuli and responses can easily be associated.
Coyotes that have been fed sheep carcasses laced with a nausea-inducing poison are less likely to prey on sheep. This phenomenon is best explained by which classical conditioning phenomenon?
Coyotes that have been fed sheep carcasses laced with a nausea-inducing poison are less likely to prey on sheep. This phenomenon is best explained by which classical conditioning phenomenon?
If children get attention for doing cartwheels, they will repeat the trick if they find this attention to be enjoyable. This is an example of _____ conditioning.
If children get attention for doing cartwheels, they will repeat the trick if they find this attention to be enjoyable. This is an example of _____ conditioning.
While classical conditioning involves the conditioning of involuntary behavior, operant conditioning involves the conditioning of _____ behavior.
While classical conditioning involves the conditioning of involuntary behavior, operant conditioning involves the conditioning of _____ behavior.
Findings from Garcia's research indicate that rats are more likely to develop aversions to _____ than to sights or sounds.
Findings from Garcia's research indicate that rats are more likely to develop aversions to _____ than to sights or sounds.
___ behavior operates on the environment, whereas respondent behavior occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.
___ behavior operates on the environment, whereas respondent behavior occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.
The cognitive processes in _____ conditioning involve the organism developing an expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished with or without reinforcement.
The cognitive processes in _____ conditioning involve the organism developing an expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished with or without reinforcement.
Taste aversion is a real-life example of which of the following types of learning?
Taste aversion is a real-life example of which of the following types of learning?
The law of effect, stating that rewarded behavior is likely to recur, is associated with which psychologist?
The law of effect, stating that rewarded behavior is likely to recur, is associated with which psychologist?
Critics of B.F. Skinner were concerned that he ignored the existence of personal freedom and dignity because he believed in:
Critics of B.F. Skinner were concerned that he ignored the existence of personal freedom and dignity because he believed in:
Which of the following is evidence that animals are predisposed to learn associations that help them adapt and survive in their environment?
Which of the following is evidence that animals are predisposed to learn associations that help them adapt and survive in their environment?
A pigeon receives food for pecking a key, but only rarely and on unpredictable occasions. This best illustrates:
A pigeon receives food for pecking a key, but only rarely and on unpredictable occasions. This best illustrates:
Which statement best describes the phenomenon of instinctive drift?
Which statement best describes the phenomenon of instinctive drift?
In _____ conditioning, an organism learns associations between events it doesn't control.
In _____ conditioning, an organism learns associations between events it doesn't control.
In classical conditioning, the acquisition of a new behavior involves associating _____, while in operant conditioning, it involves associating a response with a consequence.
In classical conditioning, the acquisition of a new behavior involves associating _____, while in operant conditioning, it involves associating a response with a consequence.
An experimenter conditions a rat to press a lever in an operant conditioning chamber for positive reinforcement of food, but the rat becomes more interested in the cage floor. This is an example of:
An experimenter conditions a rat to press a lever in an operant conditioning chamber for positive reinforcement of food, but the rat becomes more interested in the cage floor. This is an example of:
In experiments with rats where rewards were not initially given, the time needed to complete the maze decreased immediately when rewards were introduced. This caused researchers to conclude that:
In experiments with rats where rewards were not initially given, the time needed to complete the maze decreased immediately when rewards were introduced. This caused researchers to conclude that:
Learning that is not immediately demonstrated in overt behavior is called:
Learning that is not immediately demonstrated in overt behavior is called:
Punishment decreases the rate of operant responding, and negative reinforcement _____ the rate of operant responding.
Punishment decreases the rate of operant responding, and negative reinforcement _____ the rate of operant responding.
According to Darwin's principle of natural selection and Garcia's later work, taste aversions increase the likelihood of _____ in humans and other animals.
According to Darwin's principle of natural selection and Garcia's later work, taste aversions increase the likelihood of _____ in humans and other animals.
Punishment _____ the rate of operant responding, and negative reinforcement _____ the rate of operant responding.
Punishment _____ the rate of operant responding, and negative reinforcement _____ the rate of operant responding.
According to operant conditioning principles, which of the following would NOT be recommended when dealing with a young girl who is resistant to going to school every morning?
According to operant conditioning principles, which of the following would NOT be recommended when dealing with a young girl who is resistant to going to school every morning?
Which of the following is NOT a secondary reinforcer?
Which of the following is NOT a secondary reinforcer?
Which psychologist studied the development of taste aversions that could not be explained by the basic principles of classical conditioning?
Which psychologist studied the development of taste aversions that could not be explained by the basic principles of classical conditioning?
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Study Notes
Conditioning Concepts
- Classical Conditioning: Learning where an originally neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (US), triggering a conditioned response (CR).
- Operant Conditioning: Learning that occurs through rewards and punishments, where behavior is influenced by consequences.
- Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior; can be positive (adding a favorable outcome) or negative (removing an aversive stimulus).
- Generalization: Tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus (CS).
- Discrimination: Ability to differentiate between the CS and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
- Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period, without further conditioning.
Key Figures
- John B. Watson: Asserted psychology should focus on observable behavior. Noted for conditioning "Little Albert" to fear a white rat through association with a loud noise (unconditioned stimulus).
- B.F. Skinner: Proposed that external factors influence behavior, developed the concept of operant conditioning, and emphasized reinforcement techniques such as shaping behavior using successive approximations.
- Ivan Pavlov: Known for classical conditioning experiments with dogs, showing how different stimuli can be associated through a systematic approach.
Learning Mechanisms
- Learning: Defined as a relatively enduring change in behavior due to experience.
- Observational Learning: A form of learning that occurs through observing and imitating others, distinct from classical and operant conditioning.
- Latent Learning: Learning that occurs without reinforcement but is not immediately reflected in behavior. Rewards may affect the performance of learned behaviors rather than the learning itself.
Experiment Highlights
- Little Albert Experiment: Demonstrated classical conditioning in humans, where Albert generalized fear to all furry objects after being conditioned to fear a white rat.
- Pavlov's Findings: Showed that dogs salivated at a tone (CS) after being conditioned with food (US), revealing insights into reflexive responses and learning mechanics.
- Rescorla-Wagner Model: Confirmed that animals can learn to predict events and that association strength can vary based on predictability, changing how we understand classical conditioning.
Other Key Terms
- Unconditioned Response (UR): Automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus, such as salivation in response to food.
- Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Originally neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, elicits a conditioned response.
- Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to a conditioned stimulus, such as fear of a white rat in Little Albert.
- Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Natural stimulus that triggers an unconditioned response, like a loud noise causing fear or food causing salivation.
Practical Applications
- Behavioral Training: Methods like operant conditioning can be applied in training pets and in educational settings to enhance learning through reinforcement.
- Understanding Fear and Aversion: Insights from classical conditioning can help in therapeutic settings to address phobias or aversions, such as in desensitization techniques.
- Advertising: Concepts derived from conditioning theory, such as associating products with positive emotions, play a pivotal role in marketing strategies.### Reinforcement Concepts
- Negative Reinforcement: Strengthens behavior by removing an aversive stimulus.
- Positive Reinforcement: Strengthens behavior by presenting a desirable stimulus.
- Moderate Reinforcement: A balanced approach between reinforcement types, often leading to consistent behavior without dependency.
- Neutral Reinforcement: Does not significantly affect behavior; neither strengthens nor weakens.
Key Figures in Operant Conditioning
- Keller and Marian Breland: Challenged the idea that natural behavior patterns are insignificant in operant conditioning effectiveness.
- B.F. Skinner: Asserted that behavior is determined by environmental consequences rather than free will.
- John Garcia: Researched taste aversions, demonstrating organisms' predispositions in learning.
Types of Reinforcement Schedules
- Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcement every time the desired behavior occurs, leading to quicker learning.
- Intermittent Reinforcement: Reinforcement sporadically, leading to persistent behavior despite fewer rewards.
Learning Theories
- Classical Conditioning: Involves involuntary responses to stimuli, associating an involuntary response to a significant stimulus.
- Operant Conditioning: Involves conditioning voluntary behavior through consequences, focusing on reinforcement and punishment.
- Latent Learning: Learning that occurs without immediate demonstration; revealed when motivation is present.
Cognitive Influences
- Cognitive Processes in Learning: Acknowledged by modern theorists, recognizing that environment interacts with biological and psychological factors in learning.
- Role of Expectation: In operant conditioning, organisms develop expectations about rewards or punishments, influencing their behavior.
Biological Constraints and Instincts
- Instinctive Drift: The phenomenon where innate behaviors interfere with learned behaviors, highlighting biological predispositions in learning.
- Taste Aversion: Biological inclination to avoid certain tastes associated with illness, an example of classical conditioning tied to survival.
Types and Effects of Punishment
- Positive Punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior.
- Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus to reduce undesired behavior, often leads to a reduction in the behavior.
- Impact on Learning: While punishment decreases behavior, negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated.
Secondary Reinforcers
- Definition: Reinforcers that have acquired significance through association with primary reinforcers, such as money, praise, or grades.
- Food as a Primary Reinforcer: Distinct as it naturally satisfies biological needs, not learned.
Experimental Findings
- Importance of Rewards in Learning: Experiments with rats indicated reinforcement is not required for learning; knowledge can be gained without immediate rewards.
- Expectations and Classical Conditioning: The disconnect between expectation and result highlights deeper cognitive processes involved in behavioral learning.
Psychological Perspectives
- Critique of Skinner's Work: Concerns about dehumanization due to disregard for personal freedom and dignity when applying behaviorist principles.
- Cognitive Psychology vs Behaviorism: Robert Rescorla's emphasis on cognitive processing contrasts with more traditional views focused solely on stimulus-response associations.
Applications in Real Life
- Teaching Children: Understanding reinforcement and punishment dynamics can help parents guide behavior effectively without resorting to negative methods such as yelling.
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