Psychology: Thinking and Intelligence Concepts
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Questions and Answers

What is cognition?

Cognition encompasses thinking, including perception, learning, problem-solving, judgment, and memory. It seeks to understand how we integrate, organize, and utilize our conscious experiences without being aware of the unconscious work.

What is a prototype in terms of cognition?

A prototype is the best representation of a concept.

How are concepts formed in cognition?

Concepts are formed by observing details, categorizing, and combining those details into cognitive structures. This process helps us identify relationships between different pieces of information.

Describe the concept of a 'schema' in cognition.

<p>A schema is a mental construct that consists of a cluster or collection of related concepts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a 'role schema' and how does it function?

<p>A role schema involves assumptions about how people in different roles will behave. This helps fill in gaps in information we receive from the world.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an 'event schema' or 'cognitive script'?

<p>An event schema, or cognitive script, is a set of behaviors designed for a specific situation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of language?

<p>Language is a communication system that uses words and systematic rules to organize those words and transmit information. It's a primary form of communication, though not all communication is considered language.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a lexicon?

<p>A lexicon refers to the words in a given language.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define 'semantics' in the context of language.

<p>Semantics is the process of deriving meaning from morphemes, or words.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are phonemes?

<p>Phonemes are the basic sound units of a language.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the term 'morpheme'.

<p>A morpheme is the smallest unit of language that conveys a specific type of meaning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is grammar and what is its role in language?

<p>Grammar refers to the set of rules used to convey meaning through the use of the lexicon.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is the correct order for the stages of language development?

<p>Reflexive Communication, Intentional Communication, Sociability, First Words, Two Word Sentences, Three or More Word Sentences, Complex Sentences, Conversations (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a mental set?

<p>A mental set is a tendency to continually use an old solution to a problem, even if it's not producing results.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain what functional fixedness is.

<p>Functional fixedness refers to the inability to see an object as being useful for any purpose other than its intended one.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is confirmation bias?

<p>Confirmation bias involves focusing on information that confirms existing beliefs, neglecting evidence that contradicts them.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe anchoring bias.

<p>Anchoring bias occurs when we fixate on a single aspect of a problem, using it as an anchor to find a solution, even if the anchor is not the most relevant piece of information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define hindsight bias.

<p>Hindsight bias is the belief that an event that just occurred was predictable, even if it wasn't.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain representational bias.

<p>Representational bias involves stereotyping someone or something without a valid basis for judgment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are algorithms in problem-solving?

<p>Algorithms are problem-solving strategies characterized by a specific set of instructions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who proposed the theory of crystallized and fluid intelligence?

<p>Raymond Cattell proposed the theory of crystallized and fluid intelligence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is crystallized intelligence?

<p>Crystallized intelligence represents acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe fluid intelligence and its role in problem-solving.

<p>Fluid intelligence is the ability to see complex relationships, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence?

<p>Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence suggests that intelligence comprises three main components: practical, creative, and analytical intelligence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is creative intelligence as defined by Sternberg?

<p>Creative intelligence is marked by inventing or imagining solutions to problems or situations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who proposed the theory of multiple intelligences?

<p>Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple intelligences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT one of Gardner's eight intelligences?

<p>Emotional Intelligence (I)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of 'conscious and unconscious aspects of cognition' refer to?

<p>This refers to the idea that our mental processes operate on both a conscious level, where we are aware of our thoughts and actions, and an unconscious level, where information is processed without our conscious awareness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following are considered influences on cognition?

<p>Memories (A), Sensory Stimulation (B), Thoughts (C), Emotions (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define 'thoughts' in the context of cognition.

<p>Thoughts are the process of thinking: the act of thinking itself, which can be a conscious process that occurs independently of sensory stimulation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is dyslexia?

<p>Dyslexia, a common learning disorder, is characterized by difficulty processing letters. Individuals with dyslexia may mix letters, reverse them, skip words while reading, or struggle with spelling.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the Flynn effect?

<p>The Flynn effect is the observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the previous generation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following are conditions that lead to the use of heuristics?

<p>Appropriate heuristic coming to mind (A), Limited information (B), Limited time for decision-making (C), Too much information (D), Unimportant decision (E)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does poverty potentially affect intelligence testing?

<p>Children living in poverty experience more pervasive daily stress, which can negatively impact their brain function and development, potentially leading to lower IQ scores.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the findings of the Minnesota Twins study on intelligence?

<p>The study found that identical twins raised together, as well as those raised apart, exhibited a higher correlation in their IQ scores than siblings or fraternal twins raised together. This suggests a genetic component to intelligence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define consciousness.

<p>Consciousness encompasses our awareness of internal and external stimuli, our awareness fluctuates over time and can be considered a continuum between full awareness and deep sleep.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following are models of consciousness?

<p>Meditation (A), Sleep Depression (B), Daydreaming (C), Intoxication (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a circadian rhythm?

<p>A circadian rhythm is a cycle that takes approximately 24 hours and influences various biological activities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define biological rhythms.

<p>Biological rhythms are internal cycles of biological activity, such as menstrual cycles and body temperature.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define 'sleep' in the context of consciousness.

<p>Sleep is a state characterized by reduced sensory awareness and physical activity, distinct from rest during wakefulness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is 'homeostasis'?

<p>Homeostasis is the body's tendency to maintain a balance or optimal level within a biological system.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the pineal gland and melatonin in sleep?

<p>The pineal gland releases melatonin, an endocrine structure located inside the brain. Melatonin is a hormone that plays a key role in regulating our sleep-wake cycle.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are 'chronotypes'?

<p>Chronotypes refer to individual differences in our natural tendency to be either a morning person or an evening person, based on our internal circadian rhythms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following are evolutionary perspectives on why we sleep?

<p>Sleep is essential to restore resources. (A), Sleep is an adaptive response to predatory risks. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is sleep debt?

<p>Sleep debt is the result of insufficient sleep on a chronic basis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is 'jet lag'?

<p>Jet lag occurs when travel across multiple time zones leads to a mismatch between our internal circadian rhythms and the environment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following are stages of sleep?

<p>Stage 4 (A), Stage 2 (B), Stage 3 (C), Stage 1 (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe Stage 1 of sleep.

<p>Stage 1 is the transition phase from wakefulness to sleep, characterized by the presence of alpha and theta waves, associated with relaxation and meditation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of Stage 2 sleep?

<p>Stage 2 is characterized by deep relaxation, slower breathing, and the emergence of sleep spindles, which are bursts of brain wave activity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is Stage 3 sleep characterized, and what types of brain waves are present?

<p>Stage 3 is characterized by deep sleep and the dominance of high-amplitude delta waves, along with some theta and K-complexes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe Stage 4 sleep and its significance.

<p>Stage 4 is characterized by the presence of more than 50% delta waves and is considered the deepest stage of sleep, making it the most difficult to awaken from.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Sigmund Freud's perspective on dreams?

<p>Freud believed that dreams represent an opportunity to access the unconscious mind, revealing valuable insights about the individual's inner thoughts, desires, and experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are lucid dreams?

<p>Lucid dreams occur when individuals become aware that they are dreaming during a dream state, allowing them to control the dream's content.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Rosalind Cartwright's view on dreams?

<p>Cartwright believes that dreams primarily reflect daytime experiences and events that are significant to the dreamer, rather than symbolizing unconscious desires or hidden meanings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is John Hobson's concept of 'protoconsciousness'?

<p>Hobson proposes that dreaming might represent a state of protoconsciousness, suggesting that we create a virtual reality in our minds during sleep, which could potentially help us during wakefulness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are parasomnias?

<p>Parasomnias encompass a group of sleep disorders characterized by unwanted, disruptive motor activity or experiences during sleep.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe sleepwalking (somnambulism) and its key characteristics.

<p>Sleepwalking involves engaging in relatively complex behaviors, such as walking around, driving, or even carrying out everyday tasks, while asleep, often with eyes open, but with little or no awareness of their surroundings or actions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) and its connection to dreams.

<p>RBD is a disruptive sleep disorder that occurs when the muscle paralysis normally associated with REM sleep fails to occur, leading to physically acting out dreams, potentially resulting in injury to oneself or others.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is sleep apnea, and what are the two main types?

<p>Sleep apnea is characterized by episodes where breathing repeatedly stops or becomes shallow, lasting for 10-20 seconds or even longer. The two main types are obstructive sleep apnea, where the airway is physically blocked, and central sleep apnea, where signaling from the brain to the muscles controlling breathing is disrupted.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the symptoms of narcolepsy.

<p>Narcolepsy is characterized by uncontrollable episodes of excessive daytime sleepiness, often accompanied by cataplexy, which is a sudden loss of muscle tone, leading to weakness or collapse, triggered by strong emotions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following are risk factors associated with SIDS?

<p>Hyperthermia (A), Premature birth (B), Smoking within the home (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between internal and external stimuli?

<p>Internal stimuli involve awareness of thoughts, emotions, and internal sensations such as pain, hunger, or thirst. External stimuli involve experiences from the external world, such as seeing sunlight, feeling the warmth of a room, or hearing a friend's voice.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are stimulants and what is their primary effect?

<p>Stimulants are a class of drugs that typically increase alertness, energy, and mood, often creating a euphoric high, especially when injected or smoked.</p> Signup and view all the answers

List some of the negative effects associated with stimulants?

<p>Negative effects of stimulants can include nausea, anxiety, hallucinations, paranoia, elevated blood pressure, increased heart rate, and potentially even death.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is caffeine, and what are its primary functions?

<p>Caffeine is a widely used stimulant found in beverages, foods, and medications. It primarily promotes alertness and arousal, helping us feel more awake and energized.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are some of the negative effects of caffeine?

<p>High doses of caffeine can lead to insomnia, agitation, muscle twitching, nausea, irregular heartbeat, and potentially death.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is nicotine, and how does it affect the body?

<p>Nicotine is a highly addictive stimulant found in tobacco products. It primarily affects acetylcholine receptors, influencing motor neurons and promoting arousal and reward mechanisms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are opioids, and what is their primary function?

<p>Opioids are a class of drugs that bind to opioid receptors in the body, producing analgesic properties, which means they reduce pain and promote feelings of well-being.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between opiates and opioids?

<p>Opiates are naturally occurring compounds derived from the poppy plant, while opioids are synthetically produced compounds. They are both analgesics but differ in their chemical structure and effects.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are some common examples of opioids?

<p>Common examples of opioids include heroin, morphine, codeine, oxycodone, hydrocodone, methadone, and fentanyl.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the opioid crisis?

<p>The opioid crisis refers to a widespread epidemic of opioid abuse and addiction, leading to a significant increase in overdoses and deaths.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain how opioids alleviate pain.

<p>Opioids work by binding to receptors in the nervous system, mimicking the effects of naturally occurring endorphins, which reduce pain signals and produce a feeling of well-being.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is tolerance, and how does it relate to drug use?

<p>Tolerance refers to a state where increasing doses of a drug are required to achieve the same desired effect, as the body becomes accustomed and less responsive to the drug.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is psychological dependence, and how does it differ from physical dependence?

<p>Psychological dependence refers to a strong emotional need or craving for a drug, often driven by feelings of pleasure, stress relief, or a desire to avoid withdrawal symptoms, rather than a physiological need for the drug.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the role of alcohol as a central nervous system depressant.

<p>Alcohol is categorized as a central nervous system depressant, meaning it slows down brain activity and overall bodily functions, leading to feelings of relaxation, reduced inhibition, and impaired judgment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does cocaine act as a central nervous system stimulant?

<p>Cocaine is a powerful stimulant that increases the activity of the central nervous system, primarily by blocking the reuptake of dopamine in the brain, leading to feelings of euphoria, increased alertness, and heightened energy levels.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the concept of 'crack' in relation to cocaine?

<p>Crack is a highly potent and smokable form of cocaine, known for its rapid and intense effects, making it highly addictive and dangerous.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does hypnosis create a split in consciousness?

<p>Hypnosis creates a split in consciousness, allowing the hypnotist to suggest actions and ideas while the individual remains partly aware and responsive, but the individual is also capable of experiencing a disconnection between the conscious and unconscious mind.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of dissociative theory of hypnosis?

<p>Dissociative theory proposes that hypnosis splits the mind into separate parts, with one part aware and responsive to suggestions and another part seemingly disassociated or separated from conscious awareness, allowing for the effects without full conscious control.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Cognition

Thinking processes including perception, learning, problem-solving, judgment, and memory.

Prototype

The best example of a concept.

Concept

A category or grouping of things.

Schema

A mental framework for organizing information.

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Role Schema

Assumptions about how people in specific roles behave.

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Event Schema

A mental script for a particular situation.

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Language

A communication system using words and rules.

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Lexicon

All the words in a language.

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Semantics

The study of meaning in language.

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Phoneme

The smallest unit of sound in a language.

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Morpheme

The smallest unit of meaning in a language.

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Grammar

The rules for combining words to create meaningful sentences.

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Mental Set

Using a past solution to a current problem, even if it's not effective.

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Functional Fixedness

Inability to see an object as useful for a purpose other than its intended use.

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Confirmation Bias

Seeking out information that supports one's beliefs.

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Anchoring Bias

Fixating on a single aspect of a problem to find a solution.

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Hindsight Bias

Believing an event was predictable after it has happened.

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Representational Bias

Using stereotypes to judge people or things.

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Algorithms

A step-by-step procedure to solve a problem.

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Fluid Intelligence

Problem-solving and reasoning abilities.

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Crystallized Intelligence

Accumulated knowledge and skills.

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Circadian Rhythm

Internal biological clock, roughly 24-hour cycle.

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Sleep

State of reduced activity and awareness.

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Homeostasis

Maintaining a balanced internal state.

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Dyslexia

Learning disability affecting reading and spelling.

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Study Notes

Thinking and Intelligence

  • Cognition encompasses thinking, perception, learning, problem-solving, judgment, and memory. It involves integrating, organizing, and utilizing conscious experience, often without awareness of unconscious processes.
  • Prototype: The best representation of a concept.
  • Concept: A category or grouping of information (linguistic, objects, ideas, or experiences). Concepts build from observed details, combining them into cognitive structures. They are informed by semantic memory and are present throughout life, ranging from simple to complex.
  • Schema: A mental construct, a cluster/collection of related concepts.
    • Role Schema: Assumptions about how people in various roles behave.
    • Event Schema/Cognitive Script: A set of behaviors for a particular situation; can differ culturally.

Language

  • Language: A communication system using words and rules to transmit information. Not all communication is language.
  • Lexicon: The words in a given language.
  • Semantics: The process of deriving meaning from morphemes/words.
  • Phoneme: The basic sound unit of a language.
  • Morpheme: The smallest unit conveying meaning.
  • Grammar: The set of rules for conveying meaning using the lexicon.

Stages of Language Development

  • 0-3 months: Reflexive Communication (RC).
  • 3-8 months: RC, interest in others.
  • 8-13 months: Intentional communication, sociability.
  • 12-18 months: First words (phoneme discrimination).
  • 18-24 months: Two-word sentences.
  • 2-3 years: Three or more word sentences.
  • 3-5 years: Complex sentences, conversations.

Cognitive Biases

  • Mental Set: Repeatedly applying an old solution to a problem without considering alternatives.
  • Functional Fixedness: Inability to see an object as useful for any other purpose than its intended one.
  • Confirmation Bias: Focusing on information confirming existing beliefs.
  • Anchoring Bias: Focusing on a single aspect of a problem while overlooking others.
  • Hindsight Bias: Believing an event was predictable after it occurred.
  • Representational Bias: Stereotyping someone or something without valid reasons.
  • Algorithms: Problem-solving steps/instructions

Intelligence

  • Raymond Cattell: Proposed fluid intelligence (ability to reason and solve novel problems) and crystallized intelligence (acquired knowledge and its retrieval).
  • Robert Sternberg: Triarchic theory; practical, creative, and analytical intelligence.
  • Howard Gardner: Multiple intelligences theory; linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic intelligences.

Consciousness and Models of Consciousness

  • Consciousness: Awareness of internal and external stimuli. It fluctuates (awake to deep sleep)

Stages of Sleep

  • Stages marked by different levels of brain wave activity (e.g., alpha, theta, delta).

Sleep Disorders

  • Parasomnias: Unwanted sleep disruptions (e.g., sleepwalking, night terrors, REM behavior disorder).
  • Sleep apnea: Breathing stops during sleep (obstructive or central).
  • Narcolepsy: Uncontrollable sleep attacks.
  • Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS): Unknown causes.

Drugs and Consciousness

  • Stimulants: Increase alertness and arousal but have effects like nausea, increased BP, anxiety, hallucinations
  • Opioids: Decrease pain
  • Caffeine: Commonly found in drinks, food, and medicines; potentially increases alertness but has negative responses
  • Tolerance: Need a higher dose of drug to get the same response
  • Psychological dependence: Emotional dependence

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Description

Explore the fundamental concepts of cognition, including thinking, perception, and memory. This quiz will challenge your understanding of prototypes, schemas, and the role of language in communication. Test your knowledge of how we integrate and utilize conscious experiences.

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