Psychology Theories of Development

Theories of Development

• Understanding the "levels of the mind" involves delving into psychological theories explaining different layers and structures of consciousness and mental processes.
• Sigmund Freud's structural model of the mind is a commonly referenced framework, consisting of the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.

Conscious Mind

• The conscious mind encompasses current awareness, including thoughts, perceptions, sensations, and feelings.
• It represents immediate awareness of the external and internal experiences.
• It's akin to the tip of an iceberg, readily available for awareness.
• Example: processing words and their meanings while reading.

Preconscious Mind

• The preconscious mind contains information not currently in conscious awareness but can be readily brought into consciousness.
• It functions like a mental storage for memories, knowledge, and information not currently being actively thought about, but easily retrievable.
• It's like things just beneath the surface of water.
• Example: memories of breakfast, phone numbers, or childhood friends.

Unconscious Mind

• The unconscious mind is the deepest level of the mind, acting as a vast reservoir of thoughts, feelings, and memories outside conscious awareness.
• According to Freudian theory, unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories influence behavior and experience.
• These processes stem from repressed or suppressed memories, conflicts, primal instincts, and hidden psychological contents.
• Example: plays a role in dreams, slips of the tongue, and other forms of indirect expression.

Significance of Freud's Structure of the Mind

• Freud argued that suppressed feelings and experiences significantly impact behavior, often causing mental problems rooted in childhood.
• He believed psychological problems in adulthood could be traced back to traumatic childhood events.
• He proposed many mental illnesses were outlets for repressed memories from the unconscious.

Freud's View of the Human Mind: The Mental Iceberg

• The mind is like an iceberg, floating with only a small portion above the water (consciousness).
• A significant bulk of the mind lies hidden beneath the surface (unconscious).
• The diagram illustrates the conscious level, preconscious, and unconscious level consisting of distinct elements.

Freud's Structural Model of Personality

• The id, ego, and superego are the three main parts of Freud's personality structure.
• Only the id is entirely unconscious.

Explanation of Freud's Personality Structure

• Psychology defines personality as the enduring, constant features of individuals.
• The term “personality” is used to categorize a person's overt characteristics, such as aggressiveness, shyness, introversion, or sweetness.
• Impressions made on others about a person are often used as labels for that individual's "personality."

The Id

• The id is primitive, chaotic, unconscious, and amoral and is driven by the pleasure principle.
• It's filled with energy from basic drives, which it discharges to seek pleasure.
• It's not in touch with reality.
• Example: crying of a toddler for candy.

The Ego

• The ego grows out of the id during infancy.
• It functions on the reality principle, acting as a mediator between the id's and superego's demands.
• It seeks realistic ways to satisfy the id's urges while considering social norms, morals, and practical limitations.
• It uses defense mechanisms to cope with anxiety.

The Superego

• The superego develops from the ego.
• It represents internalized moral codes of individuals, often influenced by parents, caregivers, and societal expectations.
• It includes conscience and ego-ideal, guiding behavior.
• It strives for perfection and can induce feelings of guilt or shame if internalized moral codes are violated.

Defense Mechanisms

• These are unconscious psychological strategies employed to cope with anxiety, discomfort, and internal conflicts.
• They help protect the ego from distressing thoughts and feelings, while potentially distorting reality if repeatedly used.

Types of Defense Mechanisms Explained

• Denial: Refusal to accept or acknowledge reality.
• Projection: Attributing one's unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or impulses to others.
• Displacement: Redirect emotions or impulses toward a less threatening target.
• Regression: Revert to earlier stages of development during stressful situations.
• Rationalization: Creating logical explanations to make unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or behaviors more acceptable.
• Sublimation: Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities.
• Repression: Unconscious denial of unpleasant thoughts, feelings, or memories causing anxiety.
• Reaction Formation: Expressing the opposite of true feelings or impulses.

Components of Personality

• Personality is a diverse mix of traits, dimensions, and characteristics that form individuals' uniqueness.
• Different theories and models propose distinct components or factors contributing to personality structure.

Traits

• Traits are consistent patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
• Trait theories of personality, such as the Five-Factor Model (Big Five), use fundamental dimensions to describe personality structure.
• Example of dimensions: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (emotional stability).

Biological Factors

• Genetic predisposition and neurochemical processes in brain structure play a significant role in shaping personality.
• Variations in neurotransmitters (e.g., serotonin, dopamine) can influence temperament and personality development.

Cognitive Processes

• Cognitive styles like optimism and pessimism are influenced by perception, interpretation, and attribution.
• These styles affect how individuals perceive themselves and the world around them.

Social and Environmental Influences

• Social interactions, cultural norms, family dynamics, and societal factors influence personality development.
• Attachment theory shows early relationships significantly influence attachment styles and interpersonal relationships.

Self-Concept

• Self-concept is how individuals perceive and evaluate themselves, including their beliefs, attitudes, values, roles, and identities.
• Self-concept affects self-esteem, self-efficacy, and self-regulation, in turn influenced by behavior and well-being.

Motives and Goals

• Personality is affected by individual motives, needs, and goals.
• Psychodynamic theories highlight unconscious motives, such as the pursuit of pleasure, adherence to societal norms, and reality-oriented behaviors.

Environmental Factors

• The environment impacting personality development includes experiences, traumas, and stressors.
• Coping mechanisms and resilience to environmental challenges shape individuals' responses.

Interaction of Components

• Personality components dynamically interact and influence each other throughout life, contributing to individuals' unique complexities.
• Various theories attempt to explain how personality development varies across settings and life stages.

Freud's Psychosexual Theory of Development

• Fixation is a failure to progress through stages.
• Fixation results from either excessive gratification or frustration at a specific stage.
• Stages include oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages associated with corresponding erogenous zones.
• Oral Stage: Children are dependent on mothers for pleasure-seeking behaviors; fixations can manifest as overeating, excessive smoking, and insecurities.
• Anal Stage: Children learn self-control and responsibility through toilet training. Fixations can lead to either anal retentive (orderly, rigid) or anal expulsive (messy, wasteful) personalities.
• Phallic Stage: Interest in genitals develops, related to Oedipus or Electra complexes. Fixations can cause poor interpersonal relationships, narcissism, and selfishness.
• Latency Stage: Sexual impulses become subdued, channeled into social activities, often with same-sex peers.
• Genital Stage: Individuals develop mature sexuality and capacity for intimacy and reproduction, accompanied by a balance between love and work.

Cognitive Development

• Cognitive development begins with schemas
• Schemas are mental representations of the physical and social world.
• Assimilation is incorporating new information into existing schemas.
• Accommodation is modifying schemas to accommodate new information.
• Stages include sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
• Sensorimotor: Infant learns through senses and actions; gains object permanence.
• Pre-operational: Children learn through perception and images lacking abstract thought; focus on their perspective (egocentric).
• Concrete Operational: Children use logical reasoning for concrete, tangible things.
• Formal Operational: Capacity for abstract thought and hypothetical reasoning emerges.

Erikson's 8 Stages of Development

These stages describe psychosocial development across the lifespan.

• Stage 1 (Infant): Trust vs. Mistrust: A primary need for trustworthy care that establishes a basis for trust or mistrust as a foundation for future relationships.
• Stage 2 (Early Childhood): Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: Children need independence that leads to self-confidence and self-control, or to feelings of shame and doubt if they experience unmet needs.
• Stage 3 (Preschool): Initiative vs. Guilt: A need for developing a sense of initiative that shapes their ability to deal with challenges constructively—or conversely, feeling guilty for mistakes.
• Stage 4 (School Age): Industry vs. Inferiority: Children develop skills and competencies that enhance their self-worth through successes or feelings of inferiority if not successful.
• Stage 5 (Adolescence): Identity vs. Role Confusion: The need for establishing individual self —resulting either in a stable personal identity or confusion of personal roles.
• Stage 6 (Young Adulthood): Intimacy vs. Isolation: Adults need to build intimate relationships, or feelings of isolation result.
• Stage 7 (Middle Adulthood): Generativity vs. Stagnation: Individuals contribute to something greater than themselves to achieve a sense of fulfillment; lack of contributions may lead to stagnation.
• Stage 8 (Maturity): Integrity vs. Despair: A review of life, the fulfillment in life leads to feelings of integrity; otherwise, despair arises from a sense of unfulfillment.