105 MC CH2 STAT
37 Questions
2 Views

Choose a study mode

Play Quiz
Study Flashcards
Spaced Repetition
Chat to Lesson

Podcast

Play an AI-generated podcast conversation about this lesson

Questions and Answers

What is the term used to describe the extent to which measurements differ from each other in a frequency distribution?

  • Standard Deviation
  • Variability (correct)
  • Central Tendency
  • Range

    • Which of the following is NOT a method of explanation used to discover why people do what they do?

  • Correlation
  • Variable
  • Random Assignment
  • Frequency Distribution (correct)

    • What is the relationship between two variables in which variations in the value of one variable are synchronized with variations in the value of the other?

  • Frequency Distribution
  • Standard Deviation
  • Random Assignment
  • Correlation (correct)

    • What is the difference between the value of the largest measurement and the value of the smallest measurement in a frequency distribution?

    <p>Range (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a property that can have more than one value?

    <p>Variable (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a correlation coefficient of -1 indicate?

    <p>A perfect negative correlation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a factor that contributes to the strength of a correlation?

    <p>The direction of the relationship (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If the correlation coefficient between two variables is 0, what does this mean?

    <p>There is no correlation between the variables. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the third-variable problem?

    <p>A situation where a third variable influences both of the variables being studied. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Suppose you observe a strong positive correlation between the number of hours a student studies and their exam scores. What can you definitively conclude?

    <p>There may be other factors influencing both studying and exam scores. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following scenarios demonstrates a negative correlation?

    <p>The more time spent exercising, the lower a person's resting heart rate. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of understanding correlations?

    <p>It allows us to predict the value of one variable based on the value of another. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT an example of a natural correlation?

    <p>The percentage of people who eat chocolate and the percentage of people who have brown hair. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of random assignment in an experiment?

    <p>To make sure that the independent variable is the only thing that differs between the groups. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the problem with self-selection in an experiment?

    <p>It can lead to biased results because participants in each group may differ in important ways. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'statistical significance' refer to in an experiment?

    <p>The probability that the results are due to chance. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the p-value < .05 in experimental results?

    <p>It indicates that the research hypothesis is likely true. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it important to understand probability theory when interpreting real-world events?

    <p>It helps to avoid overestimating the likelihood of random coincidences. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it considered unlikely that there would be a complete absence of coincidences in real life?

    <p>Because random events are constantly happening around us. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main takeaway from the statement, 'In reality, the most astonishingly incredible coincidence imaginable would be the complete absence of all coincidence'?

    <p>Coincidences are more common than people realize, and their significance is often overestimated. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is most likely to be true about the relationship between random assignment and the p-value in an experiment?

    <p>Random assignment is a necessary condition for achieving statistically significant results (p &lt; .05). (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a reason why people have difficulty thinking critically?

    <p>We are all more likely to believe information even if it is false. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do we tend to see what we expect and want to see?

    <p>All of the above. (E)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the passage imply about the relationship between critical thinking and the scientific method?

    <p>The scientific method relies on critical thinking. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between hours of sleep and the number of countries named in one minute?

    <p>There is a positive correlation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the process used to determine a correlation between two variables?

    <p>Synchronized patterns of variation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the data suggest about the relationship between sleep and country naming performance?

    <p>People who sleep more tend to name more countries in a minute (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Based on the data, what is the approximate number of countries a person who sleeps 6 hours could name in a minute?

    <p>20 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can be inferred from the statement "correlations are the ultimate time savers"?

    <p>Correlations can help people save time by predicting future outcomes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What principle requires that participants have the right to make their own decisions in research?

    <p>Respect for persons (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes the ethical principle aimed at reducing risks to participants in research?

    <p>Concern for welfare (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What ethical principle ensures that research benefits and risks are distributed fairly among participants?

    <p>Justice (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which practice requires participants to be informed about the nature of a study before agreeing to take part?

    <p>Informed consent (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which element of ethical research involves providing truthful information about the study's purpose and procedures?

    <p>Debriefing (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of the Replacement principle in animal research ethics?

    <p>Use alternative research methods (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a principle outlined in the TCPS regarding human participants in research?

    <p>Deception (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which principle emphasizes the importance of accurate reporting and ethical credit in research?

    <p>Respecting truth (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Flashcards

    Variability

    Extent to which measurements differ from each other.

    Range

    Difference between the largest and smallest measurements in a distribution.

    Standard deviation

    Statistic that describes the average difference from the mean.

    Correlation

    Relationship where changes in one variable synchronize with changes in another.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Variable

    Property that can have multiple values.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Positive correlation

    A relationship where increasing one variable increases the other.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Negative correlation

    A relationship where increasing one variable decreases the other.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Correlation coefficient (r)

    A numerical value ranging from -1 to +1 indicating correlation strength and direction.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Perfect negative correlation

    A correlation of -1 indicating a perfect inverse relationship.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Perfect positive correlation

    A correlation of +1 indicating a perfect direct relationship.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Third-variable problem

    A situation where a third variable influences both variables in a correlation, misleading the cause.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Natural correlation

    Correlations observed in the real world that do not imply causation.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Synchronized Patterns

    Connected changes observed in two or more variables over time.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Measurement Series

    A sequence of measurements taken to analyze trends over time.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Experimental Data

    Information collected through observation or experimentation to analyze patterns.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Random Assignment

    A procedure that assigns participants to groups by chance.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Self-selection

    A problem where participants choose their group, affecting results.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Statistical Significance

    A determination that results are unlikely due to chance, typically p < .05.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Inferential Statistics

    Methods used to determine if results can be generalized to a larger population.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    p-value

    The probability that results occurred by chance; p < .05 is significant.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Experimental Group

    Group in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Control Group

    Group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment, used for comparison.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Coincidence

    An occurrence of two or more events that happen at the same time by chance.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Type II error

    Occurs when researchers incorrectly conclude no causal relationship exists between two variables, despite one actually being present.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Critical thinking

    The skill of analyzing and evaluating evidence and arguments in a rigorous, unbiased manner.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Scientific method

    A systematic process for exploring, explaining, and predicting phenomena through observation and experimentation.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Belief bias

    Tendency to let one's beliefs shape the interpretation of evidence and information.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Skeptical stance

    A mindset that involves questioning and critically evaluating claims rather than accepting them at face value.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Replication crisis

    A situation where many scientific studies cannot be replicated or reproduced, raising questions about their validity.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Causal relationship

    A connection between two variables where one directly affects the other.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Bias in evidence interpretation

    The tendency to interpret evidence in favor of one's existing beliefs or desires rather than objectively.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Tri-Council Policy Statement (TCPS)

    Guidelines outlining ethical principles for research with human participants.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Respect for persons

    Principle ensuring individuals can make informed decisions without coercion.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Concern for welfare

    Principle aimed at maximizing benefits and minimizing risks to participants.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Just research

    Principle stating that benefits and risks should be distributed fairly among participants.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Informed consent

    Requirement that participants understand and agree to the research before participating.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Protection from harm

    Ethical guideline ensuring participants are safe from physical and psychological harm.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Deception in research

    Use of misleading or incorrect information in research, typically disclosed during debriefing.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC)

    Standards for the ethical treatment of animals in research, focusing on replacement, reduction, refinement.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Study Notes

    Chapter 2: Methods in Psychology

    • This chapter outlines methods used in psychology, including empiricism, methods of observation, methods of explanation, critical thinking about evidence, and the ethics of science.

    Empiricism: How to Know Stuff

    • Scientific method: A set of principles outlining the appropriate relationship between ideas and empirical evidence.
    • Empiricism: The belief that accurate knowledge can be gained through observation, forming a crucial aspect of the scientific method.
    • Dogmatism: The tendency to cling to one's beliefs, which opposes the way science works.

    The Scientific Method

    • Scientific method: A procedure for using empirical evidence to establish facts.
    • Theory: An explanation of a natural phenomenon that cannot definitively be proved right.
    • Hypothesis: A falsifiable prediction derived from a theory.

    The Art of Looking

    • Empirical method: A set of rules and techniques in observation.
    • Observation difficulties: People's complexity, variability, and reactivity hinder observation.
    • Methods of observation: Techniques used to observe people.
    • Methods of explanation: Ways to explain how people act.

    Methods of Observation: Discovering What People Do

    • Observations: Using one's senses to understand the properties of an event/object.
    • Everyday observation limitations: Inconsistent and incomplete observations.
    • Scientific techniques to overcome limitations: Measurement and description are key.

    What to Measure and How to Measure It

    • Operational definition: A measurable description of a property.
    • Construct validity: How well a measured characteristic represents a property.
    • Reliability: The consistency of a measure.
    • Power: The ability of a measure to detect differences.

    Measurement

    • Two steps in the measurement process:
      • Define the property
      • Detect the property

    Power and Reliability at the Olympics

    • Real-world examples of measurement in sports like the 100-meter race and ice skating showcase the importance of accurate and reliable measurements.

    Demand Characteristics: Doing What Is Expected

    • Demand characteristics: Features of observational settings that cause behavior based on expected responses.
    • Obstacles in measuring behavior: Demand characteristics can complicate the process of observing typical behavior.
    • Techniques to avoid demand characteristics: Avoiding participants' knowledge, using privacy, and maintaining control over observation.
    • Naturalistic observation: A technique that unobtrusively observes people in their natural environments.
    • Pitfalls of naturalistic observation: Unwanted events, limited observation scenarios, and observer bias.
    • Techniques to reduce demand characteristics: Privacy, control, unawareness.

    Observer Bias: Seeing What Is Expected

    • Observer bias: The tendency for expectations to influence observations, possibly affecting reality.
    • Origin of observer bias: Expectations can shape observations.
    • Avoiding observer bias: Using double-blind studies.
    • Example: The impact of a renowned wine critic's judgments on participants' ratings.

    Description

    • Population: The entire group being studied (rarely measured).
    • Sample: A smaller selection from the population.
    • Data analysis: Psychologists use graphic representations and descriptive statistics.

    Graphic Representations: Picturing the Measurements

    • Frequency distribution: A visual representation of how frequently a measurement occurs.
    • Normal distribution: A mathematical frequency distribution where most measurements center around a middle point.

    Frequency Distributions

    • Data interpretation: How graphs show patterns related to happiness.

    Descriptive Statistics: Summarizing the Data

    • Central tendency: Measures of the center of a data distribution, including mean, median, and mode.
    • Skewed distribution: How data is distributed based on the mode, median, and mean.
    • Variability: Measuring how spread out the data is, including range and standard deviation.

    Calculating Descriptive Statistics

    • Calculation examples: Mode, mean, and median.

    Differently Shaped Distributions

    • Graphical presentations: Positively skewed, normally distributed, and negatively skewed.

    Variability: How Wide Is the Distribution?

    • Variability: The differences in measurements in distribution.
    • Range: The difference between the highest and lowest measurements.
    • Standard deviation: The average difference between each measurement and the mean.

    Distributions Can Differ in Variability or Central Tendency

    • Visual examples: Shows how different distributions can have different variability and central tendencies.
    • Example data sets: Showing how the data distribution in the image can look to give insight to variability and central tendency.

    Methods of Explanation: Discovering Why People Do What They Do

    • Correlation: How two variables relate, often measured by a correlation coefficient (r).
    • Variable: Any property with more than one possible value that is often investigated in a study.
    • Correlation: Indicates relationship, but is not causal; a correlation between X and Y may be caused by Z.

    Hypothetical Data

    • Example data showing a correlation between sleep and the number of countries named in a minute.

    Synchronized Patterns of Variation

    • Recognizing correlated variables' patterns to predict one variable's value using the other.

    Measuring the Direction and Strength of a Correlation

    • Correlation direction: Positive (more-is-more), negative (more-is-less).
    • Correlation strength: Ranges from +1.0 (perfect positive) to -1.0 (perfect negative); 0 indicates no correlation.
    • Correlation coefficient (r): A measure quantifying correlation strength and direction.

    Graphing Correlations

    • Visual representations of different types of correlations (positive, negative, and no correlation).

    Positive Correlations of Different Strengths

    • Demonstrates the relationship between the strength of a correlation and its graph, showing the relationship based on correlation strength.

    Causation

    • Natural correlations: Correlations observed in the real world. The third-variable problem (Z): A third variable (Z) may cause X and Y, making it difficult to show X causes Y.
    • Example data to illustrate relationships.

    Causes of Correlation

    • Three possible reasons why variables are correlated:
      • X directly affects Y
      • Y directly affects X
      • A third variable (Z) affects both X and Y

    Experimentation: Establishing Causation

    • Technique: Eliminating differences between groups by focusing on two key features.
    • Visual example: Illustrates the experiment design to establish causality.

    Three Steps of Experimentation

    • Manipulate: Create different conditions, using independent variables, which are variables controlled and changed in an experiment.
    • Measure: Measure the dependent variable, which is the observed variable in an experiment.
    • Compare: Analyze the results and compare the conditions.

    Random Assignment

    • Random assignment in experiments is fundamental to ensure conditions differ only in one way.

    Manipulation: Making Different Conditions

    • Manipulating variable values to determine their causal effect.
    • Example: Using software to manage work and projects.

    Random Assignment: Making Sure Conditions Differ in Just One Way

    • Random assignment: Assigning participants to different groups randomly.
    • Self-selection: When participant characteristics influence their group assignment.

    Statistical Testing: Making Sure Conditions Don't Differ by Chance

    • Statistical significance: Results are unlikely to be due to chance.
    • Significance level (p): Probability value of results being due to chance.
    • Example: Statistical tests to measure significance threshold.

    The Real World: The Surprisingly High Likelihood of Unlikely Coincidences

    • Surveys on beliefs in phenomena like ESP, highlighting the importance of understanding coincidences.
    • Example quote on coincidences from a scholar.

    Drawing Conclusions

    • Internal validity: Causal relationships.
    • External validity: Operational definitions' representativeness.

    The Generalizability Restriction

    • Case method: Studying one individual.
    • Random sampling: Guaranteeing equal chance for all population members.
    • Nonrandom sampling: Valid when similarity between sample and population doesn't matter.
    • Examples: How random and nonrandom sampling impact conclusions.

    Is Nonrandom Sampling a Fatal Flaw in Psychological Science?

    • Nonrandom sampling: Is not necessarily flawed, in situations where similarity is not critical the sampling method may be acceptable.
    • Examples: Showing appropriate application of nonrandom sampling techniques.

    The Reliability Restriction

    • Replication: Repeating an experiment with different samples to verify results.
    • Type I error: Incorrectly concluding there's a causal relationship.
    • Type II error: Incorrectly concluding there's no causal relationship.

    Other Voices

    • Questions about the replicability of psychological research and the meaning of failures to replicate.
    • Example: Discussing whether or not failures mean the experiment's value is worthless.

    Thinking Critically About Evidence

    • Critical thinking: Questioning and analyzing evidence to assess biases.
    • Evidence interpretation: Assessing interpretations for unbiasedness.
    • Evidence completeness: Considering the evidence's comprehensiveness.

    We See What We Expect and Want to See

    • Cognitive biases: We tend to see what we already expect or want to see.
    • Intuitive thinking styles and biases: Limitations in evaluating evidence and the role of skepticism in addressing these.
    • Example case studies: Highlighting issues of intuitive thinking styles.

    Hours Spent Partying or Studying at Some Canadian Universities

    • Data visualization, which includes bar graphs, scatterplots, and other types of visualizations to organize and depict information in an easily interpretable way.

    The Ethics of Science: Doing What's Right

    • Tri-Council Policy Statement (TCPS): Core ethical principles for research involving human participants.
    • Respect for persons: Respecting individual autonomy and freedom.
    • Welfare: Maximizing benefits and minimizing harms to participants.
    • Justice: Equitable distribution of benefits and risks.

    Respecting People

    • Ethical guidelines: Informed consent, freedom from coercion, protection from harm, risk-benefit analysis, deception, debriefing, confidentiality.
    • Illustrative examples: Using specific examples to highlight the applicability of ethical guidelines.

    Respecting Animals

    • Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC): Guidelines on the ethical use and care of animals in research.
    • Ethical guidelines in animal research: Replacement, reduction, and refinement.

    Respecting Truth

    • Honesty in scientific practices: Data reporting, credit assignment, data sharing.

    Studying That Suits You

    Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.

    Quiz Team

    Related Documents

    Psychology Methods Chapter 2 PDF

    Description

    Test your knowledge on statistics concepts used in psychology, including correlation, frequency distributions, and measurement properties. This quiz covers essential terms and methods critical for understanding relationships between variables in psychological research.

    More Like This

    Use Quizgecko on...
    Browser
    Open
    Browser
    Browser