Psychology: Schools of Thought

• Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior.
• Psychology can be analyzed on three levels: the brain, the person, and the group.

Schools of Thought in Psychology

• Humanism attributes positive values, free will, and deep inner creativity to people; Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers are key theorists.
• Gestalt focuses on macro-level psychology, considering behavior as a whole, rather than a micro-level view of parts; Max Wertheimer is a key theorist.
• Structuralism analyzes the mind by looking at its smallest components and how they fit together to form complete experiences; Wilhelm Wundt is a key theorist.
• Functionalism seeks to understand how the mind helps individuals adapt to the world and function effectively in it; William James is a key theorist.
• Behaviorism focuses on how a specific stimulus evokes a specific response; John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner are key theorists.
• Psychodynamic theory specifies that mental events engage in continual interactions among conscious and unconscious thoughts and feelings; its goal is enlightenment on how such interactions affect behavior; Sigmund Freud is a key theorist.
• William James was a Functionalist.
• Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers were Humanists.
• Wilhelm Wundt was a Structuralist.
• Max Wertheimer founded Gestalt psychology.
• John B. Watson & B. F. Skinner were Behaviorists.
• Sigmund Freud developed Psychodynamic theory.
• Clinical and counseling psychologists help people deal with personal problems or stress.
• Academic psychologists teach and conduct research on the mind and behavior.
• Applied psychologists seek to solve specific practical problems, like helping athletes perform better.

Psychological Research Types

• Descriptive research includes naturalistic observation, case studies, and surveys.
• Correlational research studies the relationship of two potentially connected variables without alteration.
• Experimental research involves experimental and control groups; the experimental group receives the treatment, while the control group does not have the independent variable manipulated.
• A case study is a deep, contextual analysis of a specific individual, group, or situation.

Ethical Considerations in Research

• Confidentiality ensures participants' personal information and data remain private, protecting their identities and building trust.
• Potential risks, including physical harm, psychological distress, and loss of anonymity, require researchers to actively identify and mitigate them through ethical research practices.
• Withdrawal procedures ensure participants have the absolute right to withdraw from a study at any point without penalty, prioritizing their well-being over research goals.
• Independent variables are manipulated by the researcher, considered the "cause," while dependent variables are the measured outcome or "effect."
• A positive correlation means two variables move in the same direction, while a negative correlation means they move in opposite directions.
• Validity is about accuracy, while reliability is about consistency.
• Random sampling refers to how individuals are selected from the population, and random assignment refers to how those participants are placed into groups.
• A hypothesis is a proposed explanation based on limited evidence, while a theory is a well-established explanation supported by extensive evidence and rigorous testing.
• IRB stands for institutional review board, which reviews research studies, examining all safety and ethical issues.
• Informed consent requires participants to be informed of their rights to withdraw at any time without penalty, typically provided by signing a written document.

The Human Brain

• Neurons include dendrites, axons, cell membranes, terminal buttons, myelin sheaths, cell bodies, and a nucleus.
• Neurotransmitters include dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, glutamate, GABA, norepinephrine, histamine, glycine, and endorphins.
• The cerebellum is involved with coordination and voluntary movements.
• The corpus callosum connects the two sides of the brain.
• The thalamus relays sensory experiences except for smell.
• The hypothalamus controls eating, drinking, body temperature, blood pressure, heart rate, and sexual behavior.
• The hippocampus converts short-term memories to long-term memories.
• The amygdala plays a role in emotions like fear and anger.
• The occipital Lobe is responsible for vision.
• The temporal lobe is responsible for hearing and language.
• The frontal lobe is responsible for thinking, planning, and decision-making.
• The parietal lobe is responsible for the sense of touch.
• The endocrine system includes the pancreas, ovaries, pituitary gland, and testes.
• The pancreas regulates sugar/insulin.
• Ovaries produce estrogen.
• The pituitary gland is the master gland that sends signals to others.
• Testes produce testosterone.
• The peripheral nervous system is divided into automatic and somatic functions.
• The central nervous system contains brain and spinal cord as the control center.
• The sympathetic nervous system controls the flight, fight, or freeze response.
• The parasympathetic nervous system controls the rest and digest response.
• The somatic nervous system controls voluntary movements.
• Sensation is the process of receiving information from senses.
• Perception is the process of interpreting senses.
• Top-down processing uses context clues, previous experience, and expectations to interpret info.
• Bottom-up processing is data-driven and focuses on incoming sensory data in real time.
• Absolute threshold is the smallest amount of stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.
• Cocktail party phenomenon means not being aware of other peoples' conversations until your name is said.
• Dichotic listening involves hearing different stimuli in each ear and listening to just one set while ignoring the other.

Theories of Memory and Learning

• Classical conditioning involves pairing an unconditioned stimulus (like a tone) with a conditioned stimulus (like food) to create a reflexive behavior.
• Avoidance learning occurs when a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unpleasant unconditioned stimulus, leading to attempts to avoid the conditioned stimulus.
• Conditioned emotional response is an emotionally charged conditioned response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus.
• Phobias are an irrational fear of a specific object or situation.
• A subject experiences panic symptoms, sweat, and heart racing every time she passes this pond on her jogging path after an alligator leapt from the neighborhood pond, nearly biting her dog's leg.
  • The unconditioned stimulus: the pond
  • The unconditioned response: Panic symptoms
  • The neutral stimulus that becomes the conditioned stimulus: jogging
  • The conditioned response: panic symptoms, sweat, and heart racing
  • How do you extinguish this response: recondition the pond and jogging with extinction.
  • Generalize reaction to: the alligator
• Tom felt nauseous at the mere mention of sushi after eating spoiled sushi at a new sushi restaurant; Tom felt sick and had to rush to the bathroom.
  • The unconditioned stimulus: sushi
  • The unconditioned response: sickness
  • What is the neutral stimulus that becomes the conditioned stimulus: sushi
  • The conditioned response: nausea
  • How do you extinguish this response: extinction
  • Generalize reaction to: spoiled fish
• Operant conditioning involves learning through rewards and punishments for responses, assisting an individual in making the association between a particular behavior and a consequence.

Reinforcement Types

• Primary reinforcers have natural, intrinsic value and do not need to be learned like food, water, sleep, and warmth.
• Secondary reinforcers gain their value through association with primary reinforcers and are not inherently satisfying like money, praise, or tokens.
• Immediate reinforcement occurs directly after the desired behavior, more effective in establishing and maintaining behavior.
• Delayed reinforcement has a delay between behavior and reinforcement; it can still be effective, but may require more advanced learning, and is generally less effective.
• Continuous reinforcement occurs when every instance of the desired behavior is reinforced and is useful when teaching the behavior and leads to rapid extinction.
• Partial reinforcement occurs when only some instances of the desired behavior are reinforced and can maintain behavior and making the behavior more resistant to extinction.

Examples of Operant Conditioning

• Using positive reinforcement when learning to stick to a morning workout routine. After each workout, rewarding with a delicious breakfast or some extra relaxation time, which reinforced the habit of completing the morning workout each day.
• Using negative punishment to fix staying up too late watching TV. Limiting access to TV or other entertainment the next day (negative punishment) due to being tired and unproductive.

Memory

• Sensory memory briefly holds sensory information.
• Short-term memory holds information for a limited time and is where we temporarily store and process information that we are currently aware of.
• Long-term memory stores information for an extended period and has a much larger capacity than short-term memory.
• Semantic memory: the memory of general facts, concepts, and knowledge about the world, it is not tied to specific events or experiences.
• Episodic memory: the memory of specific events or experiences in one's life, including the time and place they occurred.
• Explicit memory: involves conscious recall of information, including both semantic and episodic memory, it is memory that we can consciously access.
• Implicit memory: refers to unconscious memory processes, including procedural memory, classical conditioning, and priming.
• Context-dependent memory: improved recall when the context is the same as when it was learned.
• State-dependent memory: better recall when in the same emotional or physical state.
• Flashbulb memories: vivid, detailed memories of significant events.
• Recall: retrieving information from memory without cues.
• Recognition: identifying previously learned information when presented again.
• False memories: memories of events that never happened.
• Anterograde: unable to remember anything after.
• Retrograde: unable to remember anything from before.

Theories of Personality

• The Big Five is known as OCEAN or CANOE, and describes these five factors that helps people understand personality.
• Hans Eysenck's Three-Factor personality has only three 'super factors' or personality dimensions: Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Psychoticism.
• Temperament refers to the innate traits that influence how individuals react emotionally and behaviorally to different situations.
• Gender influences personality through societal expectations and roles associated with being male, female, or non-binary.
• Culture influences personality by shaping norms, values, behaviors, and ways of thinking that individuals learn from their society.
• Genetics play a significant role in the development of personality by influencing inherited traits such as temperament, intelligence, and predispositions to certain behaviors or mental health.

Social Cognition

• Attitudes are evaluations/feelings towards people, objects, or ideas that influence behavior.
• Cognitive dissonance is the psychological discomfort that occurs when holding contradictory beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.
• Persuasion involves attempting to change beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors through communication.
• The attitude has 3 components:
  • Affective: "I feel so happy spending time with my friends."
  • Behavioral: "I make an effort to spend time with my friends."
  • Cognitive: "I believe that spending time with friends is important for my well-being."
• Cognitive dissonance is reduced by:
  • Change behavior to align
  • Change beliefs to align
  • Add new cognitions
• Terms: -Stereotype: A widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing. -Prejudice: A negative attitude or judgment about someone based solely on their membership in a particular group. -Discrimination: Unfair or unequal treatment based on group membership. -Realistic conflict theory: Intergroup conflict arises when groups compete for limited resources, leading to prejudice and discrimination. -Ingroup: A group to which a person feels they belong, characterized by shared interests, values, etc. -Outgroup: A group to which a person does not belong; People may hold negative views of those in outgroups. -Self-fulfilling prophecy: Actions that cause a belief to become true. -Implicit prejudice: Unconscious attitudes or stereotypes. -Stereotype threat: Fear of confirming a negative stereotype. -Attribution theory: How individuals interpret events and behaviors. -Fundamental Attribution Error: Overestimate internal factors and underestimate external factors when judging others. -Self-serving bias: Attribute successes to internal factors and failures to external factors. -Belief in a just world: The cognitive bias that assumes that people get what they deserve, and that bad things happen to people because they must have done something to deserve it. -Attraction: Feeling drawn to someone; often based on physical appearance, similarity, proximity, and other factors. -Social-exchange theory: Relationships are formed and maintained based on cost-benefit analysis. -Companionate vs. passionate love: Passionate love is intense and emotional, companionate love is affectionate and grows over time. -Sternberg's theory of love: Intimacy, passion, and commitment create different types of love. -Attachment theory: Early relationships influence patterns of attachment.

Conformity & Obedience.

-Conformity: Adjusting to match a group. -Norms: Rules of behavior in society. -Asch’s study: People are likely to conform to group opinions. -Obedience: Following direct commands. -Milgram’s study: People follow authority even when causing harm; had ethical issues. -Group polarization: Group decisions become more extreme. -Groupthink: Desire for harmony leads to poor decisions. -Social loafing: Exerting less effort in a group. -Social facilitation: Performing better when others are present. -Altruism: Selfless concern for others. -Bystander Effect: Less likely to help when others are present.

Psychological Disoders

• Psychological disorders are influenced by three key factors: biological, psychological, and sociocultural.

• Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) is used to describe the following disorders and their symptoms.

• Personality disorders are characterized by enduring patterns of behavior, cognition, and inner experience that deviates markedly from the expectations of the individual's culture.

• Mood disorders involve disturbances to someones emotional state, leading to extremes in mood or prolonged periods of sadness or irritability.

• Anxiety disorders inbolve excessive fear or anxiety that interferes with daily functioning.

• Phobias are intense, irrational fears of specific objects or situations.

• Schizophrenia is characterized by disturbances in thought, perception, and behavior.

• Eating disorders involve extreme behaviors related to food, body image, and weight that can significantly impair health.

• Mood disorders include: Depressive disorders and Bipolar disorders.

• Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) occurs when the person is Characterized by at least two weeks of depressive mood and loss of interest or pleasure in daily activities

• Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia) occurs when the the person is A chronic form of depression lasting for at least two years, with less sever.

• Bipolar I Disorder is when the person is characterized by manic episodes lasting at least a week.

• Bipolar II Disorder characterized with Involves hypomanic episodes and depressive episodes..

• Cyclothymic happens when the person is Characterized by periods of hypomanic and depressive symptoms that do not meet the full criteria for bipolar I or II disorder.

• A primary difference between Depressive and Bipolar Disorders Depressive disorders include persistent sadness while bipolar disorders involve mood swings.

• Three types of anxiety orders: -Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): Is characterized by excessive, uncontrollable worry about a variety of different topics or events, -Panic Disorder:Involves recurrent and unexpected panic attacks, along with persistent worry about having more panic attacks -Panic Attack:A sudden onset of intense fear or discomfort, a discrete event, they can occur as a symptom in several other medical conditions. -Agoraphobia: Characterized by an intense fear of being in situations where escape might be difficult

• Social Phobia or Social Anxiety Disorder: Characterized by an intense fear of being judged, embarrassed, or humiliated.

• Specific Phobia: a irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or animal that is typically not dangerous.

• With Agoraphobia the person fears: Certain locations and Situations often link to panic.

• Main symptoms of Social Phobia include: -Excessive fear or being scrutinized or judged. -Avoidance of social situations.

• Common Specific Phobias: -Arachnophobia: Fear of spiders. -Acrophobia: Fear of heights. -Cynophobia: Fear of dogs. -Ophidiophobia: Fear of snakes. -Aerophobia: Fear of flying. -Claustrophobia: Fear of enclosed spaces.

• Agoraphobia often happens by: Fear of being in situations or places where escape might be difficult and is often linked to panic attacks.

• Social Phobia happens by: Fear of social situations where they might be judged etc.

• Specific Phobia includes: Fear of specific objects or situations, altitudes or animals

• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is characterized by obsessions and compulsions performed to reduce anxiety.

• Obsessions themes of this condition: -Fear of harm. -Fear of contamination. -Need for symmetry.

• Three examples of obsessions: contaminations, fear of causing harm, and a fear of making mistakes.

• Schizophrenia is characterized by disturbances in thought, perception, and behavior.

• Positive Sx refer to excessive or distorted mental functions or behaviors that are not typically seen. (Hallucinations)

• Hallucinations- where individuals hear voices, these are primarily sensory

• Delusions- False beliefs that people are resistant to; can take various forms, paranoid etc.

• Disorganized speech -word salad, there are is coherence to communications here.

• Negative symptoms-absence of reduction of normal functioning , represent a decrease in a person ability to function and experience the world. (Avolition ,Ahedonia ,Affective flattening)

• The conditions required for PTSD are:

  • Exposure to a traumatic event:
  • Intrusive Symptoms:
  • Avoidance and Negative Changes in Mood or Cognition:

• Thee Clusters of Personality disorder:

  • Cluster A: Odd or Eccentric Behavior
  • Cluster B: Dramatic
  • Cluster C: Anxious or Fearful Behavior

• There are three levels of analysis for a psychological disorder: the Biological Level, the Psychologyicak Level and the Sociocultural level.

• The diathesis-stress model the idea that a disorder or condition (stressors) that combine to trigger the onset of a disorder.

• According to the biopsychosocial approach, four factors need analyzing to determine The Biological Factors: Psychological Factors and the societal Factors and of course the Cultures at large.

Psychological Treatments

• Common types of psychotherapy which will improve symptoms as follows: -Humanistic which focuses on self exploration, uses techniques as active listening, in a emphatic understanding and general good treatment will give the patient self awareness. and insight in order to better manage daily feelings. -Behavioral Based on the learning and focus on changing un healthy behaviors uses techniques as systematic Dissemination and operant conditioning methods -Cognitive Focuses idenitying and thinking this can lead to to negative thoughts and emotions. -Cognitive-Behavioral is a combination of the cognitive and the behavioral and can treat unhelpful thought patterns. -EMDR is primarily used to traumatic memories the client focus on distress while the therapy desensitized and helps their emotional.

• A technique where an individual is gradually exposed to the feared object or situation in a controlled and safe manner: Exposure

• The definition of the following technique Commonly used to treat Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder (OCD): Exposure with Response Prevention.

• Involves modifying the environment or external stimuli to promote desired behaviors or reduce undesirable ones is termed: Stimulus Control

• Systematic Desensitization -A step-by-step process where the individual gradually decreasing anxiety and and reducing stimuli

• Behavior Modification:A technique aimed at changing maladaptive behaviors by reinforcing desired behaviors and punishing

• There are 3 key points that Cognitive Therapy is trying to get the client to achieve. -Reduce Emotional Distress -Empower Client -Promote Long term Effects.

• CBT-Cognitive Behavior Therapy helps clients modify thoughts which impact behaviors and feelings.

• Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) was developed by Marsha Linehan, works for BPD (Borderline Personality Disorder) , but work has moved on to other disorders and conditions such as self harm. , emotional regulation, and even Suicide

• DBT's first main goal: to help the patient to get a grip and handle their behavior and teach them to control those behaviors and to stay away from self destructive behaviors.

• Techniques Included in DBT:

• DBT four core skills modules: Mindfulness ,Distress Tolerance, Emotion Regulation, Interpersonal Effectiveness:

• There are to option's that medicine can treat is patients are: Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs),Serotonin-Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRIs)]

• Placebo has to do with psychological phenomenon after a person experiences and reports increased health due to the person believing that have been medically treated for there health disorder

• Some medications includes treatments for : Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) ,Panic Disorder

• The safest options which people go for is often SSRIs and SNRIs, they do not have or show mild side effects profiles/