Psychology Reinforcement and Attribution Theories

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Questions and Answers

What type of reinforcement schedule is exemplified by a puppy receiving a reward every 10th time it shakes a paw?

Fixed interval

Variable ratio

Continuous reinforcement

Fixed ratio (correct)

Which reinforcement schedule leads to both fast learning and fast extinction?

Variable ratio

Continuous reinforcement (correct)

Partial reinforcement

Fixed interval

What would an example of a variable interval schedule be?

A child receives a sticker at the end of class for correct spelling

An athlete receives a medal based on performance every season

Starting a car in extreme cold with varying times (correct)

A dog receives treats every 10th command

Which type of reinforcement schedule is least likely to produce quick extinction?

Variable ratio Signup and view all the answers

What is the strongest form of reinforcement mentioned based on psychological processes?

Intermittent positive reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

What does the 'cocktail party' effect demonstrate regarding selective attention?

The ability to focus on one conversation while ignoring others. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the Fundamental Attribution Error?

Overemphasizing personality-based explanations for behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

What does the Actor-observer Bias imply about personal and others' behavior attribution?

One's actions are attributed to external factors while others' are attributed to internal factors. Signup and view all the answers

What is the Just-world Hypothesis based on?

The belief that people get what they deserve in life. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason for the shortcuts in processing information mentioned in the context of decision-making?

To conserve energy and make quick decisions. Signup and view all the answers

Which concept refers to the notion that the mind and body are fundamentally different?

Dualism Signup and view all the answers

What was Titchener's main contribution to psychology?

Mapping elements of consciousness Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the focus of functionalism?

Adaptive functions of mental processes Signup and view all the answers

Who is associated with the development of psychodynamic psychology?

Freud Signup and view all the answers

What concept did Jung introduce that refers to shared elements inherent to all human beings?

Archetypes Signup and view all the answers

What method did Pavlov primarily study in his experiments?

Conditioning responses Signup and view all the answers

Which type of therapy focuses on addressing symptoms through memory and emotion analysis?

Talk therapy Signup and view all the answers

Which psychologist's theories significantly influenced the behaviorist approach?

Watson Signup and view all the answers

What is a key aspect of Social Learning Theory as proposed by Bandura?

Learning is influenced by observation and modeling. Signup and view all the answers

In a social dilemma, what is a common individual behavior that leads to long-term negative consequences for the group?

Choosing options that maximize personal benefits. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements would be classified as a value?

Pineapple is a good pizza topping. Signup and view all the answers

What does Bandura’s Social Learning Theory suggest regarding learning from observation?

Modeling can lead to both positive and negative outcomes in behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic is often attributed to individual differences in psychology?

Variations among people on physical or psychological dimensions. Signup and view all the answers

In terms of learning explanations, what do classical and operant conditioning fail to address according to Bandura?

The role of cognitive processes in learning. Signup and view all the answers

Which example illustrates a social dilemma?

Using water freely during a drought. Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of 'multiply determined' imply in studying psychology?

Behavior results from various interacting factors. Signup and view all the answers

What is the maximum amount of information that short-term memory can hold?

5-9 items Signup and view all the answers

What does working memory primarily deal with?

Interpreting and modifying information Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for information that influences memory reconstruction after an event?

Post-event information Signup and view all the answers

What is referred to as the misinformation effect in memory studies?

Corruption of memory by post-event information Signup and view all the answers

Which factor describes when the verb used in a question influences the response but does not create a false memory?

Response-bias factors Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of memory was criticized in the research of Loftus?

Its assumption about all memories being unreliable Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of 'word suggestibility' refer to?

The alteration of memory representation due to specific verbs Signup and view all the answers

In studies comparing lab and real-life eyewitness testimony, what was one criticism of Loftus's findings?

They don't consider instances where memory can be accurate Signup and view all the answers

What is necessary for a trait to be favored by natural selection?

The trait must be heritable and provide reproductive advantage. Signup and view all the answers

What concept explains the idea that surviving alone does not ensure the passing on of genes?

Reproductive success is ultimately more critical than just survival. Signup and view all the answers

Which term refers to individual differences that arise in identical twins that do not share the same traits?

Nonshared environment Signup and view all the answers

What role do instincts play according to the discussed concepts?

Instincts ensure survival and reproduction through complex behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

What is indicated when the correlation coefficient for identical twins exceeds that for fraternal twins?

Genetic influence is an important determinant of personality. Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of evolutionary useful behaviors?

They are behaviors that have historically increased reproductive success. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes the concept of heritability in twin studies?

It reflects the genetic contribution to trait similarity among twins. Signup and view all the answers

What defines the 'fitness' of a species in an evolutionary context?

Its ability to adapt, find resources, and reproduce effectively. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Sensation and Perception

Sensation is awareness resulting from stimulating a sense organ
Perception is the organization and interpretation of sensations
Sensation and perception combine environmental input with prior knowledge to enable judgments and appropriate behavior choices
The six senses include seeing, hearing, smelling, touching, tasting, and monitoring body positions

Measuring Sensation

Psychophysics is the branch of psychology studying the effects of physical stimuli on sensory perceptions and mental states.
Fechner was an early researcher in this field
Absolute threshold is the stimulus intensity that an organism can barely detect.

Signal Detection Analysis

This technique determines a person's ability to distinguish a signal from background noise.
It considers four outcomes: hit, miss, false alarm, and correct rejection.

Vision

Electromagnetic energy, in the form of waves, carries information.
Wavelength is the distance between wave peaks.
The visible spectrum is the range of wavelengths humans can see (400-700 billionths of a meter).
Amplitude and frequency are two important features of a wave and influence perception.

Hearing

Sound waves are pressure changes in a medium (e.g., air, water).
Wavelength (frequency) determines pitch. Longer waves mean lower pitch, while shorter waves mean higher pitch.
Amplitude determines loudness (measured in decibels). Higher amplitude = louder sound
Loudness is also influenced by the number of vibrating hairs

How we detect pitch

The frequency of a sound wave corresponds to the frequency of nerve impulses in the auditory nerve.
A tone measurement of 600 hertz would produce 600 nerve impulses per second.

Hearing Loss

Conductive hearing loss is caused by damage to the outer or middle ear (e.g., ear drums or ossicles), reducing the vibrations to the inner ear.
Sensorineural hearing loss is more common and caused by damage to the inner ear (e.g., cilia or auditory nerve).

Touch

Touch is crucial for development
Touch communicates warmth, caring, support and is part of social interaction
The skin is the body’s largest organ with thousands of nerve endings sensitive to pressure, hot, cold, and pain.

Pain

A pain message is sent from the injured area to the brain very quickly to prevent damage to the body.
The brain processes the pain signal, then sends a message back to the injured area to act in a way that reduces the pain.
This can include pulling away from pain or otherwise reacting to reduce the stimulation that causes the pain.

Selective Attention

The "cocktail party" effect describes the brain's ability to filter out irrelevant information while focusing on important auditory information.
This skill helps us follow a conversation in a noisy room.

Heuristics

Heuristics are easily learned, efficient rules that people use to make decisions, make judgments, and solve problems when facing complex or incomplete information.

Fundamental Attribution Error

People tend to overemphasize dispositional (personality-based) explanations and underemphasize situational factors for other people's behaviors.

Actor-Observer Bias

People tend to attribute their own actions to external factors while attributing others' actions to internal factors.

Just-World Hypothesis

The belief that the world is just and people get what they deserve.

Decision Fatigue

A phenomenon where one's ability/motivation to make reasoned decisions declines after making many decisions.

Consciousness and Psychology

Dualism proposes the mind and body are distinct entities.
Psychologists view consciousness as a product of neural connections in the brain.

Psychoactive Drugs

Psychoactive drugs are chemicals that alter states of consciousness, particularly perceptions and mood.
Hallucinogens (e.g., marijuana, LSD) alter perceptions, sometimes causing hallucinations.
Depressants (e.g., alcohol, narcotics) slow down body and mental processes.
Stimulants (e.g., caffeine, nicotine, cocaine) speed up body and mental processes

Attention

Attention is the concentration of consciousness.
Attention includes sustained, divided, and selective attention.

Stages of Sleep

Sleep is categorized into REM (Rapid Eye Movement) and NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement) stages.
Stage 1 and 2 are NREM stages characterized by light sleep.
Stage 3 and 4 are deeper NREM stages.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Information temporarily stored.
Limited capacity (5-9 items).

Working Memory

The process used to make sense of, modify, interpret, and store information in short term memory. This is not a memory itself but a procedure.

Memory Blends

Post-event information (PEI) can alter memory reconstruction and lead to inaccuracies.
Several sources of post-event information can result in mistaken or distorted memories.
This creates a misrepresentation of the event.

Misinformation Effect

The corruption of memory by post-event information.
Laboratory and real-world cases show reconstructive nature of memory.

Types of Intelligence Factors

General intelligence relates to abstract thinking, knowledge acquisition, reasoning and problem solving.
Specific intelligence describes skills in specific domains (e.g., musical ability).
Fluid intelligence involves capacity for learning, solving problems, and performing new activities.

Sex Differences in Intelligence

Research shows minimal differences in scores based on sex.
Crystallized intelligence is accumulated knowledge, which increases throughout life.

Language and Perception

Linguistic relativity suggests language structures influence thought.
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis states that language determines thought.

Complex Behaviors through Operant Conditioning

Teaching animals tricks involves simple stimulus-response associations instead of complex conditioning.
Continuous reinforcement leads to fast learning and fast extinction.

Reinforcement Schedules

Variable Ratio - rewards are delivered after an unpredictable number of responses.
Fixed Ratio - rewards are delivered after a specific number of responses.
Variable Interval - rewards are delivered after an unpredictable amount of time.
Fixed Interval - rewards are delivered after a specific amount of time.

Learning occurs from observing and modeling behaviors of others.
This differs from simple Classical and Operant Conditioning based learning.

A situation where individual behavior maximizing personal benefits leads to negative consequences for the group overall.

Values vs Facts

Values are personal beliefs about what should be prioritized or followed.
Facts are observable, objective truths supported by empirical evidence.

Challenges Studying Psychology

Individual differences, including physical or psychological characteristics.
Challenges in creating environments with the same conditions for every subject
Multiply-determined behaviors are impacted by numerous factors.

Nature vs Nurture

Nature (genetics) and nurture (environment) both play a role.
Recent research emphasizes the interaction of both influences.

Terminology Continued (Brain Structures)

Thalamus relays sensory information to higher brain levels
Amygdala is involved in regulating emotions like fear and aggression.

Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers in the nervous system, that transmit signals between neurons.
Excitatory neurotransmitters make a neuron more likely to fire.
Inhibitory neurotransmitters make it less likely to fire.

Different Methods to Study the Brain

Lesions (damage) can show brain regions and function deficits.
Cases of stroke and other injuries can provide useful data by identifying the connection between localization and associated damage.
Different methodologies are used to study different brain regions to compare and contrast functionality.

Brain Organization and Left-Right Hemisphere Functions

The brain has left and right hemispheres, and each typically handles different types of information.

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Description

Test your knowledge on reinforcement schedules and psychological concepts such as the Fundamental Attribution Error and the Actor-observer Bias. This quiz covers key topics in psychology, ideal for students looking to deepen their understanding of behavioral theories and cognitive processes.