Psychology MCAT Chapter 3 Flashcards

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Questions and Answers

What is learning?

The way in which we acquire new behaviors.

What is a stimulus?

Anything that causes a reaction or change in an organism.

What is habituation?

A type of learning in which increased exposure to the same stimulus can decrease the response to a stimulus.

What is dishabituation?

The recovery from habituation to a stimulus usually happens when a person is exposed to a different stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is the orienting reflex?

The tendency of an organism to orient its senses toward an unexpected stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is the use of the orienting reflex?

Self protection - allows us to quickly gather information about a stimulus that could be threatening. Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the orienting reflex as we become habituated to a stimulus?

It decreases. Signup and view all the answers

What is associative learning?

The process of learning a connection between certain stimuli and a response. Signup and view all the answers

What are the two types of associative learning?

Classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Signup and view all the answers

What is classical conditioning?

A type of learning that creates associations between two unrelated stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

What is an unconditioned stimulus?

A stimulus that causes a natural response in an organism. Signup and view all the answers

What is an unconditioned response?

The natural response of an organism to the unconditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is a conditioned stimulus?

A neutral stimulus that, through repeated association with an unconditioned stimulus, begins to elicit a conditioned response. Signup and view all the answers

What is a conditioned response?

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What are signaling stimuli?

Neutral stimuli that have the potential to be a conditioning stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is acquisition?

The process of turning an unconditioned stimulus to a conditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

How can a conditioned stimulus be made neutral again?

By not presenting the conditioned stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus multiple times. Signup and view all the answers

What is extinction?

The process of making the conditioned stimulus a neutral stimulus again. Signup and view all the answers

What is spontaneous recovery?

If an extinct conditioned stimulus is presented again, a weak conditioned response can sometimes be exhibited. Signup and view all the answers

What is generalization?

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. Signup and view all the answers

What is discrimination in classical conditioning?

The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is operant conditioning?

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. Signup and view all the answers

Who is B.F. Skinner?

A scientist credited with developing behaviorism. Signup and view all the answers

Who is Pavlov?

A scientist who introduced many ideas about classical conditioning. Signup and view all the answers

What is behaviorism?

The theory that human and animal behavior can be explained in terms of conditioning, without appeal to thoughts or feelings, and that psychological disorders are best treated by altering behavior patterns. Signup and view all the answers

What is reinforcement?

A tool used in operant conditioning used to increase the frequency of a behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What is positive reinforcement?

Adding a desirable stimulus to the environment after a behavior is done. Signup and view all the answers

What is negative reinforcement?

Taking something undesirable from the environment. Signup and view all the answers

Do positive and negative reinforcement increase or decrease the likelihood of a behavior?

Increase. Signup and view all the answers

What are the two types of learning associated with negative reinforcement?

Escape and avoidance learning. Signup and view all the answers

What is escape learning?

Reducing the unpleasantness of something that already exists. Signup and view all the answers

What is avoidance learning?

Trying to avoid an unpleasant situation that is yet to happen. Signup and view all the answers

What are primary reinforcers?

Reinforcers that an organism responds to naturally, such as food, water, shelter. Signup and view all the answers

What are secondary reinforcers?

Learned reinforcers that can be used to attain primary reinforcers. Signup and view all the answers

What is a discriminative stimulus?

A stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement. Signup and view all the answers

What is punishment?

The use of conditioning to decrease the frequency of a behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What is positive punishment?

Adding something negative to the environment. Signup and view all the answers

What is negative punishment?

Taking away something positive from the environment. Signup and view all the answers

What is a fixed ratio schedule?

An operant conditioning principle in which reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made. Signup and view all the answers

What is a continuous reinforcement schedule?

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. Signup and view all the answers

What is a fixed-interval schedule?

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. Signup and view all the answers

What is a variable-interval schedule?

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. Signup and view all the answers

What is a variable-ratio schedule?

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. Signup and view all the answers

What reinforcement schedule is most resistant to extinction?

Variable ratio schedule. Signup and view all the answers

What reinforcement schedule is least resistant to extinction?

Continuous reinforcement schedule. Signup and view all the answers

What reinforcement schedules have the fastest response rates?

Variable schedules. Signup and view all the answers

What reinforcement schedules have a brief moment of no response after a behavior is reinforced?

Fixed ratio schedules. Signup and view all the answers

What is shaping?

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What is latent learning?

Learning that occurs without a reward but is quickly demonstrated when a reward is at play. Signup and view all the answers

What is problem solving?

Process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways. Signup and view all the answers

What types of learning go against operant conditioning?

Problem solving and latent learning. Signup and view all the answers

When are animals most likely to learn new behaviors?

When they coincide with their own abilities. Signup and view all the answers

What is preparedness?

Predisposition to learn behaviors based on their own natural abilities and instincts. Signup and view all the answers

What is instinctive drift?

Difficulty in overcoming instinctual behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

What is observational learning?

Learning by observing others; also called social learning. Signup and view all the answers

What is social learning?

Another name for observational learning. Signup and view all the answers

Who is Albert Bandura?

Pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others. Signup and view all the answers

What are mirror neurons?

Neurons in the brain that are activated when one observes another individual engage in an action and when one performs a similar action. Signup and view all the answers

What is cognition?

The way in which we use and store information in memory. Signup and view all the answers

What is prolonged exposure therapy?

Habituation based therapy used to treat PTSD by repetitively exposing clients to fear-inducing stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

What is contiguity?

The degree to which two stimuli occur close together in time. Signup and view all the answers

Should the unconditioned stimulus and neutral stimulus/conditioned stimulus be presented together or separately?

They should be presented separately by a short time period. Signup and view all the answers

What is forward (delayed) conditioning?

CS comes first, but continues until US starts. Signup and view all the answers

What is forward (trace) conditioning?

CS comes first, ends before start of UCS, conditioning occurs readily but response is sometimes weak. Signup and view all the answers

What is forward trace conditioning with longer delay?

Conditioning is weaker. Signup and view all the answers

What is simultaneous conditioning?

CS and US are presented at the same time. Signup and view all the answers

What is backward conditioning?

Conditioning procedure in which the onset of the CS follows the onset of the US. Signup and view all the answers

What is contingency?

The degree to which the presentation of one stimulus reliably predicts the presentation of the other stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is taste aversion?

A learned avoidance of a particular food. Signup and view all the answers

What is aversion therapy?

A type of therapy that uses classical conditioning to condition people to avoid certain stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

What is the law of effect?

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. Signup and view all the answers

What is extinction burst?

A temporary increase in a behavioral response that occurs immediately after extinction begins. Signup and view all the answers

What is the Acquisition and Extinction Graph?

Organism is positively reinforced for an action it does the action more often as it requires the operant behavior. If the action does not reap any rewards after the initial burst it begins to undergo extinction. Signup and view all the answers

In what two ways does observational learning deviate from behaviorism?

<ol> <li>Acknowledges that learning can occur without overt changes in behavior. 2) Takes into account the role of cognition in learning.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Learning Fundamentals

Learning is the acquisition of new behaviors and knowledge through various processes.
A stimulus is anything that triggers a reaction or change within an organism.

Habituation and Dishabituation

Habituation occurs when repeated exposure to a stimulus leads to a decrease in response.
Dishabituation is the recovery from habituation, often triggered by exposure to a different stimulus.
The orienting reflex involves the inclination to focus senses on unexpected stimuli, serving a protective function.

Associative Learning

Associative learning entails forming connections between stimuli and responses.
Types of associative learning include classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning involves forming associations between two unrelated stimuli.
The unconditioned stimulus elicits a natural response (unconditioned response) without prior learning.
The conditioned stimulus, initially neutral, acquires the ability to evoke a conditioned response after association with the unconditioned stimulus.

Key Principles of Classical Conditioning

Acquisition is the process of linking the unconditioned stimulus with the conditioned stimulus.
Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus repeatedly, leading it to revert to a neutral state.
Spontaneous recovery may happen when an extinguished conditioned stimulus is presented again, resulting in a weak conditioned response.

Generalization and Discrimination

Generalization is the tendency for similar stimuli to evoke similar responses after conditioning.
Discrimination is the learned ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other non-signaling stimuli.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning strengthens or weakens behavior based on consequences: reinforcers increase behavior, while punishers decrease it.
B.F. Skinner is a prominent figure in behaviorism's development.

Reinforcement and Punishment

Positive reinforcement adds a desirable stimulus to encourage behavior.
Negative reinforcement removes an undesirable stimulus to promote behavior.
Both forms of reinforcement increase the likelihood of a behavior.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement is delivering reinforcement after every response.
Fixed ratio schedules provide reinforcement after a specific number of responses.
Interval schedules provide reinforcement based on the time elapsed, with fixed and variable distinctions.

Learning Dynamics

Variable ratio schedules are most resistant to extinction, while continuous reinforcement is the least resistant.
Shaping is a technique to guide behavior towards a desired outcome through reinforcers.

Latent Learning and Problem Solving

Latent learning occurs without immediate rewards and can manifest when incentives are present.
Problem-solving involves cognitive processes to achieve goals.

Observational Learning

Observational learning takes place by watching others, known as social learning.
Albert Bandura emphasized the importance of modeling behaviors and learning from the actions of others.
Mirror neurons activate during both observation of actions and performance of similar actions.

Additional Concepts

Prolonged exposure therapy is a form of habituation therapy used in treating PTSD.
Preparedness refers to the predisposition to learn behaviors that align with natural instincts.
Instinctive drift signifies the struggle to override instinctual behaviors.

Conditioning Techniques

Forward (delayed and trace) conditioning involves the timing of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli.
Backward conditioning, where the unconditioned stimulus precedes the conditioned stimulus, is the least effective form.
Contingency defines the reliability of one stimulus predicting the occurrence of another.

Taste Aversion and Therapy

Taste aversion is a learned avoidance of specific foods.
Aversion therapy employs classical conditioning to encourage avoidance of certain stimuli.

The Law of Effect

Thorndike's law of effect states that behaviors followed by favorable outcomes are likely to be repeated, while those followed by unfavorable outcomes are less likely to recur.

Behavioral Response Trends

An extinction burst is a temporary increase in response frequency as an organism experiences extinction.
Acquisition and extinction patterns exhibit initial increases in behavior followed by declines and eventual cessation.

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Explore key concepts such as habituation, operant conditioning, observational learning, and classical conditioning with these flashcards. Perfect for MCAT preparation, this quiz will help reinforce your understanding of fundamental learning theories in psychology.