Psychology Learning Concepts

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What is the primary way humans adapt to their environments according to the definition of learning?

By memorizing experiences

By forming associations (correct)

By avoiding pain

By acquiring rewards

Which type of learning involves repeating acts that lead to rewards?

Cognitive learning

Associative learning

Operant conditioning (correct)

Classical conditioning

How do learned associations influence habitual behaviors?

They are formed only during childhood.

They connect behaviors with specific contexts. (correct)

They have no impact on behavior.

They make habits easier to break.

What philosophical perspective is reflected in the idea that we learn through association?

Empiricism Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential effect of using a red pen for grading, as discussed in the content?

It results in harsher grading due to negative associations. Signup and view all the answers

Which concept best describes learning that occurs through observation and language?

Cognitive learning Signup and view all the answers

What can increase self-control according to the discussion on beneficial habits?

Forming beneficial habits linked to positive outcomes Signup and view all the answers

How might environmental context influence a person's attitude towards education taxes?

Associations formed in specific locations affect opinions on taxes. Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli?

Discrimination Signup and view all the answers

How do classical and operant conditioning differ in terms of the responses they focus on?

Classical conditioning deals only with involuntary responses. Signup and view all the answers

What physiological response might be conditioned through classical conditioning in a drug-using context?

Drug cravings Signup and view all the answers

In the Watson and Rayner experiment with Little Albert, what was the role of the loud noise?

Unconditioned stimulus (US) Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential consequence of classical conditioning related to dieting?

Stronger cravings for unhealthy foods Signup and view all the answers

What psychological principle did Pavlov's work primarily illustrate?

Classical conditioning Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary outcome observed in Little Albert after conditioning?

Fear generalized to similar objects Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of generalization in classical conditioning refer to?

Responding similarly to similar stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of Pavlov's work, why is his research important for understanding learning?

It identifies objective methods for studying learning. Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of classical conditioning on the immune response?

It can condition a taste to produce an immune response. Signup and view all the answers

What did Watson's experiment with Little Albert suggest about human emotions?

They are primarily learned responses to the environment. Signup and view all the answers

Why might goal-oriented programs ask clients to avoid certain settings related to past drug use?

To prevent triggering conditioned cravings. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the concept of a conditioned stimulus play in classical conditioning?

It becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What does higher-order conditioning involve?

Pairing a conditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the diminished response to a conditioned stimulus when it is presented without the unconditioned stimulus?

Extinction Signup and view all the answers

Which phenomenon occurs when a conditioned response reappears after a pause despite prior extinction?

Spontaneous recovery Signup and view all the answers

What does generalization refer to in the context of classical conditioning?

The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus Signup and view all the answers

Why might generalized fears linger after traumatic experiences?

They create stronger conditioned responses Signup and view all the answers

In Pavlov’s experiments, what type of stimuli did the dogs continue to respond to after conditioning?

Similar stimuli to the conditioned stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during the process known as extinction?

The conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about the relationship between discrimination and generalization?

Discrimination is the opposite of generalization. Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of generalization in terms of responses to similar stimuli?

Similar stimuli elicit similar responses. Signup and view all the answers

During classical conditioning, what is it called when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus?

Acquisition Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by 'discrimination' in the context of classical conditioning?

Responding only to the specific conditioned stimulus and not others Signup and view all the answers

Which might be an example of higher-order conditioning in everyday life?

A child feeling scared at the sight of a dentist after hearing a drill Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'stimulus generalization' imply about responses to different stimuli?

Responses are elicited by stimuli that are reminiscent of the original stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is classical conditioning primarily concerned with?

The association between stimuli and anticipating events Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines acquisition in classical conditioning?

The initial stage of associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus Signup and view all the answers

In behaviorism, what is emphasized as the primary focus of study?

Observable behaviors and their relationships Signup and view all the answers

What typically happens during extinction in classical conditioning?

The conditioned stimulus appears without the unconditioned stimulus leading to diminished responses Signup and view all the answers

Who conducted seminal experiments that formed the basis of classical conditioning?

Ivan Pavlov Signup and view all the answers

What effect does generalization have in classical conditioning?

It causes a learned response to be triggered by similar stimuli Signup and view all the answers

What is respondent behavior in the context of learning?

Responses triggered automatically by certain stimuli Signup and view all the answers

What is the average number of days it takes for a healthy behavior to become a habit?

66 days Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the decrease in responsiveness to a repeated stimulus?

Habituation Signup and view all the answers

What technique was used by Watson and Rayner in their experiment with Little Albert?

Classical conditioning to instill fear Signup and view all the answers

In classical conditioning, what do we learn to associate?

Two stimuli Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of counterconditioning in behavioral therapy?

To eliminate undesired responses by establishing new associations Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between respondent behavior and operant behavior?

Operant behavior produces environmental consequences. Signup and view all the answers

What was significant about the advertising campaigns that Watson developed?

They applied associative learning principles to influence consumer behavior Signup and view all the answers

How did Pavlov’s work impact our understanding of emotional responses?

It showed that emotional responses are often conditioned and can be modified Signup and view all the answers

In the sea slug example, what happens when it is repeatedly squirted with water?

It habituates to the squirt. Signup and view all the answers

What type of learning occurs when one observes another's experience?

Observational learning Signup and view all the answers

What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?

The return of a conditioned response after a period without stimuli Signup and view all the answers

In the context of behavioral strategies, what role does extinction play?

It diminishes previously learned responses through lack of reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

What do classical and operant conditioning both involve?

The association of events with responses. Signup and view all the answers

How might a seal learn to repeat certain behaviors in an aquarium?

By associating actions with receiving a reward. Signup and view all the answers

Why is habituation considered a form of learning?

It involves decreased response to a repeated stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is the key factor that distinguishes classical conditioning from operant conditioning?

The involvement of rewards or punishments. Signup and view all the answers

What does cognitive learning involve?

Acquisition of mental information. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of operant conditioning?

Learning through observation. Signup and view all the answers

What is a common outcome of repeated stimulation in habituation?

Diminished reaction to the stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of respondent behavior?

Flinching at a sudden loud noise. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of classical conditioning?

Linking two or more stimuli to elicit behavior. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best reflects the concept of behaviorism?

It focuses on observable behavior without mental processes. Signup and view all the answers

In Pavlov's experiments, what role did the tone play initially?

A neutral stimulus before conditioning. Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary methodology used by Pavlov in his experiments?

Using a device to measure the dog's salivation. Signup and view all the answers

What happens after repeated pairings of a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?

The neutral stimulus evokes a conditioned response. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best shows operant conditioning?

A student studies hard for a test because they want to receive praise. Signup and view all the answers

What did Pavlov conclude about the process of learning?

Basic laws of learning are universal across species. Signup and view all the answers

Why did behaviorists like Watson dismiss mental processes?

They thought behavior could only be explained by observable actions. Signup and view all the answers

In Pavlov's research, what does the term 'unconditioned stimulus' refer to?

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response. Signup and view all the answers

What type of learning involves watching others and then imitating their behavior?

Observational learning. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of behavior did Watson suggest should be the focus of psychological research?

Measurable and observable behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

Why are habits, such as having something sweet with coffee, hard to break?

They are rewarded as a conditioned response. Signup and view all the answers

During conditioning, what is an example of a neutral stimulus?

The tone that elicits drooling after conditioning. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the unconditioned response in classical conditioning?

It is a natural response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is an unconditioned response (UR) in classical conditioning?

A naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes a stimulus that initially has no effect but eventually triggers a response after conditioning?

Neutral stimulus (NS) Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the process of acquisition in classical conditioning?

A neutral stimulus becomes linked to an unconditioned stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the conditioned stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning?

To trigger a conditioned response after conditioning Signup and view all the answers

What is spontaneous recovery in the context of classical conditioning?

A conditioned response returns after a period of rest Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines generalization in classical conditioning?

Responding similarly to different but related stimuli Signup and view all the answers

How does a neutral stimulus become a conditioned stimulus?

By being presented before the unconditioned stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by extinction in classical conditioning?

The gradual weakening of a conditioned response Signup and view all the answers

What is higher-order conditioning?

When a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus Signup and view all the answers

In Pavlov's experiment, what was the unconditioned stimulus (US)?

The food presented to the dog Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about conditioned responses is true?

They are learned associations between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus Signup and view all the answers

Why is classical conditioning considered biologically adaptive?

It allows an organism to respond to stimuli for survival and reproduction Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of presenting the unconditioned stimulus before the neutral stimulus in classical conditioning?

Conditioning will not occur Signup and view all the answers

What outcome might occur if a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with a pleasurable experience?

It may become a conditioned stimulus for positive feelings Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'conditioned response' refer to in classical conditioning?

A learned reaction to a previously neutral stimulus Signup and view all the answers

Which concept is illustrated when subjects respond similarly to distinct but related stimuli?

Generalization Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?

It initially elicits a response without prior learning. Signup and view all the answers

In operant conditioning, what does a reinforcer do?

Increases the likelihood of a behavior repeating Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following examples reflects operant conditioning?

A student receives praise for turning in homework on time. Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the extinction phase of classical conditioning?

The conditioned response diminishes over time. Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of spontaneous recovery?

A dog starts salivating again at the sound of a bell after a rest period. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes positive reinforcement from negative reinforcement?

Negative reinforcement increases behavior by removing adverse stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

Which schedule of reinforcement is characterized by providing reinforcement after a set number of responses?

Fixed ratio schedule Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of Skinner's work caused controversy?

His disregard for biological influences on behavior. Signup and view all the answers

How would a researcher demonstrate extinction in a classically conditioned response?

By repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of operant conditioning in teaching a child to say 'please'?

Rewarding the child with a treat when they say 'please'. Signup and view all the answers

In classical conditioning, which response is defined as 'unconditioned'?

A natural and automatic reaction that does not require learning Signup and view all the answers

During the process of operant conditioning, how is behavior often shaped?

By systematically reinforcing successive approximations to the behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of delayed gratification in children?

They tend to be socially competent. Signup and view all the answers

What effect does continuous reinforcement have on behavior?

It leads to quicker extinction of behavior. Signup and view all the answers

How does partial reinforcement differ from continuous reinforcement?

Partial reinforcement sometimes provides rewards. Signup and view all the answers

What behavior does a fixed-ratio schedule reinforce?

After a set number of responses. Signup and view all the answers

What type of reinforcement schedule produces high rates of responding due to unpredictability?

Variable-ratio schedules Signup and view all the answers

Which schedule is characterized by reinforcement after a specified amount of time has passed?

Fixed-interval schedule Signup and view all the answers

What does a variable-interval schedule tend to produce in response patterns?

Slow, steady responding. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor contributes to the persistence of gambling behavior, according to reinforcement schedules?

Partial reinforcement through unpredictable wins. Signup and view all the answers

What happens when a candy machine fails to deliver a product after repeated attempts?

Consumers will stop using it altogether. Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of occasionally yielding to a child's tantrum?

It reinforces the behavior and increases its frequency. Signup and view all the answers

What is true about responses under a fixed-ratio reinforcement schedule?

Responses often occur after a brief pause following reinforcement. Signup and view all the answers

How does a variable-ratio schedule affect behavior compared to a fixed-ratio schedule?

Variable-ratio has a higher resistance to extinction. Signup and view all the answers

Which reinforcement schedule would lead one to check their mail more frequently as the delivery time approaches?

Fixed-interval schedule Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of partial reinforcement schedules?

Rewards are given intermittently. Signup and view all the answers

What does Thorndike's law of effect state about behaviors?

Behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. Signup and view all the answers

What is an operant chamber, commonly known as a Skinner box, used for?

To manipulate and record the behaviors of animals as they seek rewards. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the process of shaping behavior?

Gradually guiding behavior towards a desired action through successive approximations. Signup and view all the answers

What role do discriminative stimuli play in operant conditioning?

They elicit a response after being associated with reinforcement. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of operant conditioning, what might be considered a reinforcer for a trained rat?

Food provided immediately after bar pressing. Signup and view all the answers

Which Finding did Skinner's experiments contribute to the understanding of learning?

Reinforcement depends on individual circumstances and stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

What behavior did Skinner manage to teach pigeons using reinforcement?

Walking in a figure 8. Signup and view all the answers

How do Skinner's techniques apply to everyday life according to the content?

People often unintentionally reinforce behaviors in others. Signup and view all the answers

What can the shaping of a behavior through successive approximations lead to?

The development of completely new and complex behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

In the study involving pigeons recognizing human faces, what type of stimulus was involved?

Discriminative stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

Why is the concept of reinforcement important in learning?

It increases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated. Signup and view all the answers

What could vary in what is considered a reinforcer according to situations?

What is reinforcing for one animal may not be for another. Signup and view all the answers

What might the presence of Isaac's dad's responses illustrate in operant conditioning?

Reinforcement can reinforce unwanted behaviors, like whining. Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario exemplifies a use of shaping in behavior modification?

Giving a rat food for pressing the bar after multiple attempts. Signup and view all the answers

What finding about pigeons was revealed in their ability to discriminate based on reinforcement?

They can identify categories of objects after discriminative training. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of positive reinforcement in operant conditioning?

To strengthen behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What describes negative reinforcement in operant conditioning?

Removing an aversive stimulus to strengthen a response Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a primary reinforcer?

Food when hungry Signup and view all the answers

Which of these statements about conditioned reinforcers is true?

They gain their power through association with primary reinforcers Signup and view all the answers

What is a key factor in the effectiveness of reinforcement in operant conditioning?

The timing of the reinforcement after the desired behavior Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario illustrates negative reinforcement?

A person takes painkillers to relieve a headache Signup and view all the answers

Which of these examples best represents the concept of a delayed reinforcer?

Receiving a paycheck every two weeks for work performed Signup and view all the answers

How does negative reinforcement differ from punishment?

Negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus, while punishment adds one Signup and view all the answers

What might be an implication of experiencing withdrawal pangs for someone with drug addiction?

Compelling reasons to resume using the drug to relieve discomfort Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios would exemplify a conditioned reinforcer?

A rat learning that a light signals food delivery Signup and view all the answers

Which factor can influence the likelihood of a behavior being repeated as a result of negative reinforcement?

The strength of the aversive stimulus being removed Signup and view all the answers

What do studies on impulse control show regarding delayed gratification?

Children who can delay gratification often demonstrate better life outcomes Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about the relationship between primary and conditioned reinforcers?

Conditioned reinforcers derive their effectiveness from their association with primary reinforcers Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the behavior of salivating in response to a tone that has been paired with food?

Respondent behavior Signup and view all the answers

How can parents use reinforcement effectively to encourage their children to eat dinner?

Provide daily rewards for eating dinner Signup and view all the answers

What is the correct term for the decrease in response to a stimulus when that stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus?

Extinction Signup and view all the answers

Which factor might lead to the development of superstitious behaviors in sports?

Accidental timing of rewards Signup and view all the answers

What is the best description of shaping in the context of learning to ride a bike?

Reinforcing successive approximations toward a goal Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about how operant and classical conditioning differ based on the types of behaviors they involve?

Only operant conditioning involves reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

What does the process of generalization involve in the context of operant conditioning?

Transferring learned behaviors to new situations Signup and view all the answers

What might be a consequence of using rewards in a behavioral training setting?

Rewards can lead to immediate compliance without understanding Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a schedule of reinforcement that might be used to maintain a child's behavior?

Fixed interval schedule Signup and view all the answers

In the context of managing stress, what technique is exemplified by biofeedback?

Learning to control physiological responses Signup and view all the answers

What is a key component of operant conditioning that distinguishes it from classical conditioning?

Consequences follow behavior Signup and view all the answers

How can operant conditioning principles be effectively applied in educational settings?

By reinforcing correct responses immediately Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best illustrates the application of reinforcement in sports training?

Gradually increasing challenges as athletes master skills Signup and view all the answers

What is a common result of inconsistent reinforcement in behavior modification?

Formation of superstitious behaviors Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following approaches in the workplace is most aligned with operant conditioning principles?

Rewarding specific, achievable behaviors immediately Signup and view all the answers

What effect does stating measurable goals have on self-improvement according to operant conditioning principles?

It increases motivation and success likelihood Signup and view all the answers

What does Skinner suggest is essential for effective learning in education?

Immediate feedback following correct responses Signup and view all the answers

What parenting mistake might reinforce negative behavior according to operant conditioning principles?

Giving in to protests when asked to follow rules Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of monitoring one's study time?

To assess under what conditions studying occurs Signup and view all the answers

What is the main effect of positive reinforcement on behavior?

It adds a stimulus to increase the behavior's occurrence. Signup and view all the answers

What should be done to reinforce desired behaviors over time?

Gradually reduce rewards Signup and view all the answers

Why is it recommended to reinforce behaviors when teaching children?

It fosters a positive learning atmosphere Signup and view all the answers

What factor is crucial for the effectiveness of reinforcement in behavior modification?

Consistency and immediate feedback Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes operant conditioning?

Associating behavior with its consequences Signup and view all the answers

What role does biofeedback play in stress management?

It helps monitor and control physiological states Signup and view all the answers

In the context of operant conditioning, what is the impact of a Skinner box on animal behavior?

Reinforces specific actions through structured rewards Signup and view all the answers

Which schedule of reinforcement yields the fastest learning but is highly susceptible to extinction?

Continuous reinforcement. Signup and view all the answers

How do operant conditioning techniques apply to managing stress in individuals?

By reinforcing healthy coping strategies Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?

Operant conditioning involves associations between behaviors and their consequences Signup and view all the answers

How can one increase persistence toward long-term goals, according to the concept discussed?

By rewarding oneself immediately after desired actions Signup and view all the answers

What leads to the fastest skill improvement in athletes, according to operant conditioning?

Reinforcing small successes prior to advancing Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential negative effect of using punishment as a behavioral control method?

It may encourage fear and aggression. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'extinction' refer to in operant conditioning?

A gradual decrease in response due to lack of reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

In which reinforcement schedule is the number of responses before reinforcement varied unpredictably?

Variable-ratio schedule. Signup and view all the answers

What technique can help differentiate between beneficial and non-beneficial stimuli?

Discrimination Signup and view all the answers

What do conditioned (or secondary) reinforcers rely on for their effectiveness?

Learned associations with primary reinforcers. Signup and view all the answers

In which context was biofeedback found to be particularly effective?

Management of tension headaches Signup and view all the answers

Which example illustrates the use of negative reinforcement?

A dog learns to sit to avoid being ignored. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of immediate rewards in goal setting?

To provide long-term motivation Signup and view all the answers

What does a fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement reward?

After a set time period. Signup and view all the answers

Which process typically results in the reappearance of a previously extinguished response?

Spontaneous recovery Signup and view all the answers

What is the law of effect according to Thorndike?

Favorable consequences increase the likelihood of behavior repetition. Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential psychological effect of physical punishment on children?

Association of fear with the punishing authority Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a disadvantage of using a continuous reinforcement schedule?

Increased likelihood of extinction when rewards stop. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by 'generalization' in the context of operant conditioning?

Responding similarly to new, similar situations Signup and view all the answers

What trend is observed in countries that have banned corporal punishment?

A decrease in incidences of slapping and beating Signup and view all the answers

What strategy might be effective in achieving realistic study goals?

Partnering with friends for accountability Signup and view all the answers

In operant conditioning, what is a key difference between primary and conditioned reinforcers?

Primary reinforcers satisfy basic needs without prior learning. Signup and view all the answers

What can be a consequence of using punishment as a behavior modification technique?

Can result in fear or resentment towards the punishing agent. Signup and view all the answers

What do some researchers argue about the relationship between physical punishment and aggression?

High-frequency spanking predicts future aggression Signup and view all the answers

In what way does positive reinforcement differ from punishment in shaping behavior?

Positive reinforcement encourages desirable behaviors rather than merely avoiding negative consequences Signup and view all the answers

How can ineffective punishment manifest in parental practices?

Reliance on yelling or physical threats to enforce discipline Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of behavior does Skinner emphasize as crucial for effective behavior modification?

Using rewards rather than punishments Signup and view all the answers

What is one argument made against the methods of punishment suggested by Skinner?

They neglect intrinsic motivations leading to dependency on external rewards Signup and view all the answers

What is the traditional psychological belief about the cause of aggressive behavior in children who are physically punished?

It is linked to preexisting behavioral issues Signup and view all the answers

According to the content, reinforcement teaches what kind of moral lesson?

Positive obligations and desirable actions Signup and view all the answers

What alternative to threats does the text suggest for behavior modification?

Positive phrasing to frame expectations Signup and view all the answers

What was B.F. Skinner's view on the necessity of neurological understanding in psychological science?

It is irrelevant to understanding behavior Signup and view all the answers

What significant outcome does the use of operant conditioning in behavior management seek to achieve?

Promote long-term behavioral change through positive reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

What type of behavioral pattern does skinning hope to diminish through the use of operant conditioning?

Dependency on discipline through punishment Signup and view all the answers

What principle does positive punishment operate under in behavioral modification?

Applying an aversive stimulus to reduce undesirable behavior Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes positive punishment from negative punishment?

Positive punishment adds a stimulus while negative punishment removes a stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best illustrates a variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement?

A slot machine pays out after an unpredictable number of plays. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of interval schedules of reinforcement?

Reinforcement is provided only after a specific passage of time. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about negative reinforcement is true?

It involves the withdrawal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a drawback of physical punishment according to the research?

It can teach children to discriminate between situations where punishment is applied. Signup and view all the answers

What effect does reinforcement from gambling activities like slot machines tend to have on behavior?

It often reinforces gambling behavior unpredictably. Signup and view all the answers

What does it mean when it is stated that punishment suppresses behavior rather than eliminates it?

Punished behavior may return when the threat of punishment is gone. Signup and view all the answers

In operant conditioning, what is the primary difference between fixed and variable schedules?

Fixed schedules are predictable while variable schedules are unpredictable. Signup and view all the answers

How can positive punishment be effectively applied in behavior modification?

It must be swift and certain to be effective. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of reinforcement in behavior modification?

To consistently increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Signup and view all the answers

When considering a behavioral approach towards parenting, which technique can be seen as problematic?

Employing physical punishment without understanding its risks. Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of a fixed-ratio schedule?

Reinforcement is provided after a set number of responses. Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about Skinner's view on reinforcement principles across different species?

Reinforcement principles apply similarly across different species. Signup and view all the answers

What role does unpredictability play in variable schedules of reinforcement?

It often leads to higher and more consistent rates of responding. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement describes a consequence of using punishment rather than reinforcement?

Punishment risks creating fear rather than modifying behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What does the phenomenon of preparedness refer to in the context of classical conditioning?

A biological predisposition to learn associations that enhance survival. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best explains how biological constraints affect conditioning?

Animals can learn associations related to survival more easily than irrelevant ones. Signup and view all the answers

How do cognitive processes play a role in classical and operant conditioning?

They contribute to how organisms perceive and interpret stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

What are the two main ways people learn to cope with personal problems?

By learning new behaviors and changing thought patterns. Signup and view all the answers

What effect can a perceived lack of control have on an individual's behavior and health?

It may result in feelings of helplessness and poor health outcomes. Signup and view all the answers

What is self-control important for in the context of learning and behavior?

It helps individuals resist temptations and make beneficial choices over time. Signup and view all the answers

Can self-control be depleted, and if so, how?

It can be diminished through overexertion in decision-making tasks. Signup and view all the answers

What does learning theorists' recognition of biopsychosocial influences on learning suggest?

Both psychological and biological influences play a crucial role in learning. Signup and view all the answers

What often reduces the effectiveness of conditioning in humans when associating alcohol with sickness?

The awareness that nausea is induced by a drug Signup and view all the answers

What is a cognitive map in the context of latent learning?

A mental representation of one's environment Signup and view all the answers

How does excessive external reward affect intrinsic motivation?

It destroys intrinsic motivation Signup and view all the answers

What did Skinner believe about thoughts and emotions in behaviorism?

They are behaviors that follow the same laws as other behaviors Signup and view all the answers

What is latent learning?

Learning that occurs without reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes insight learning?

It leads to an instant realization of a solution Signup and view all the answers

What approach did Skinner resist regarding cognitive processes?

Their place in the science of psychology Signup and view all the answers

What effect did the absence of food rewards have on rats in the maze experiment?

They developed a cognitive map that was later utilized Signup and view all the answers

In the context of conditioning, what is meant by intrinsic motivation?

The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake Signup and view all the answers

Which process describes the measurement of responses by animals approaching a reinforcement schedule?

Expectation behavior Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant risk of extrinsic motivation in educational settings?

Decreased long-term interest in subjects Signup and view all the answers

What cognitive feature did rats demonstrate by running a maze quickly once rewards were given?

Cognitive mapping Signup and view all the answers

What does evidence of cognitive processes illustrate in learning?

There is more to learning than behavior alone Signup and view all the answers

What can best describe the behavior of animals on fixed-interval reinforcement schedules as time elapses?

Responses increase as expected reinforcement approaches Signup and view all the answers

What is intrinsic motivation primarily driven by?

Curiosity and personal satisfaction Signup and view all the answers

What can be considered a form of extrinsic motivation?

Desire to win a competition Signup and view all the answers

Which coping strategy is used when a person believes they cannot change a situation?

Emotion-focused coping Signup and view all the answers

What physiological effect can be seen in individuals experiencing learned helplessness?

Higher likelihood of ulcers Signup and view all the answers

How does perceived personal control influence a person’s ability to cope with stress?

It enhances feelings of competence and control Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of youth sports coaches focusing on intrinsic motivations?

To cultivate a lasting interest in the sport Signup and view all the answers

Which approach is characterized by attempting to change a stressor directly?

Problem-focused coping Signup and view all the answers

What impact can extrinsic rewards have when used effectively?

They can improve performance and encourage creativity Signup and view all the answers

What defines emotion-focused coping in stressful situations?

Reaching out to social supports Signup and view all the answers

Why might an individual experience feelings of learned helplessness?

They experience uncontrollable negative events Signup and view all the answers

Which concept is associated with learning to expect reinforces in operant conditioning?

Expectation of reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

What type of coping is generally considered the most adaptive for direct problems?

Problem-focused coping Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential advantage of focusing on the intrinsic meaning of work?

It may yield higher extrinsic rewards Signup and view all the answers

What key finding emerged from Garcia and Koelling's research on rats and taste aversion?

Rats developed aversions to tastes but not to sights. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the concept of taste aversion?

Avoidance of food based on prior food experiences. Signup and view all the answers

How does taste aversion relate to natural selection?

It helps organisms learn to avoid harmful substances, enhancing survival. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of classical conditioning did Garcia's findings challenge?

The necessity of immediate pairing of CS and US for effective conditioning. Signup and view all the answers

What role does nausea typically play in learning and behavior according to the content?

It serves as an important signal to avoid harmful substances. Signup and view all the answers

Why might it be challenging to eradicate bait-shy rats using poisoning methods?

They have developed aversions to the bait based on past experiences. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'preparedness' refer to in the discussion of taste aversion?

The evolutionary advantage of associating certain stimuli with negative outcomes. Signup and view all the answers

In what way did Garcia's research illustrate a conflict with behaviorism as it was understood in the mid-twentieth century?

Garcia's findings suggested that learning does not always require immediate feedback. Signup and view all the answers

What psychological principle can be deduced from the ability of rats to avoid tainted food after a delayed aversion response?

Time can influence the strength of associations. Signup and view all the answers

What application of Garcia’s research involves protecting agricultural interests?

Conditioning predators to avoid livestock. Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic of Garcia’s experiments heightened their significance in psychological research?

They illustrated a biological basis for some types of learning. Signup and view all the answers

What was the initial reaction from the scientific community to Garcia's findings?

They faced ridicule and rejection from leading journals. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of taste aversion, which of the following statements is true about human learning?

Humans are predisposed to associate certain tastes with illness more easily than other stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

What can happen to cancer patients in relation to their treatment environments based on classical conditioning principles?

They often develop anxiety and nausea linked to sights and sounds of the clinic. Signup and view all the answers

What is learned helplessness primarily characterized by?

Hopelessness and passive resignation Signup and view all the answers

How do perceived levels of control relate to health outcomes?

Higher control leads to decreased stress and better health Signup and view all the answers

What effect does lack of control in work environments typically have on workers?

Higher stress and health issues Signup and view all the answers

What has been observed in elderly nursing home residents with limited control?

Faster mental decline and earlier death Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is linked to longer life spans according to the research mentioned?

Control over one’s environment Signup and view all the answers

How do high levels of economic status relate to health outcomes?

They predict lower risks of certain diseases Signup and view all the answers

What is one consequence of excessive freedom of choice in modern cultures?

Decreased life satisfaction and increased regret Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of perceived control on stress during difficult situations, such as natural disasters?

It reduces stress significantly Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best captures the relation between personal freedom and happiness?

Greater personal freedom leads to higher happiness Signup and view all the answers

What psychological hormone response is associated with experiencing a loss of control?

Increase in stress hormones Signup and view all the answers

In studies of social hierarchy among primates, which group typically shows less health resilience?

Primates at the bottom of the social hierarchy Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant finding about nurses in relation to their control over work environment?

Less perceived control increases blood pressure Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary focus of Google's Innovation Time Off program?

To increase personal control over work projects Signup and view all the answers

What describes an external locus of control?

Perceiving outside forces dictate fate Signup and view all the answers

Which group tends to report lower levels of stress hormones?

Military and business leaders Signup and view all the answers

How does self-control relate to long-term outcomes?

It is crucial for health, income, and academic performance Signup and view all the answers

What happens to self-control after it has been actively used?

It tends to weaken temporarily after use Signup and view all the answers

What demographic trend regarding locus of control has been observed in young Americans?

More emphasis on external circumstances Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of individuals with a strong internal locus of control?

Increased susceptibility to anxiety Signup and view all the answers

What factor is linked to developing self-control?

Practicing self-discipline and resisting urges Signup and view all the answers

What is a common misconception about self-control?

It is a fixed trait that cannot be developed Signup and view all the answers

What does an internal locus of control correlate with in childhood development?

Lower blood pressure in adulthood Signup and view all the answers

Which behavior is typically associated with individuals who have a high sense of free will?

Willingness to engage in decision-making Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome for individuals with a strong external locus of control in high-stress situations?

Greater symptomatology of posttraumatic stress disorder Signup and view all the answers

How does belief in free will affect individual behavior in society?

Enhanced readiness to help others Signup and view all the answers

In which scenario is self-control likely to be depleted according to studies?

While resisting appealing temptations like food Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon occurs when a learned behavior gradually reverts to biologically predisposed patterns?

Instinctive drift Signup and view all the answers

How does cognitive processing influence classical conditioning according to Rescorla's research?

Predictability increases the strength of conditioned responses. Signup and view all the answers

What limitation does nature impose on operant conditioning?

Biological predispositions constrain which behaviors are effectively learned. Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between taste aversion and conditioned responses?

Taste aversion illustrates a conditioned response based on illness after specific food intake. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of animal training, what does the term 'natural athletes' refer to?

Animals can only learn behaviors related to their typical activities. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best illustrates a cognitive influence in conditioning?

Rats developing fear towards a tone that precedes a shock. Signup and view all the answers

How did Garcia and Koelling's studies challenge earlier behaviorist claims?

They demonstrated that not all activities are equally conditionable to any stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

When conditioned preferences were studied using Pokémon characters, what factor enhanced the effect of conditioning?

Conscious awareness of associations increased learning. Signup and view all the answers

What did the ranchers' use of lamb laced with a drug demonstrate regarding taste aversion?

Conditional aversions can be intentionally created to train animals away from certain foods. Signup and view all the answers

Why might a behaviorist view the connection between cognition and conditioning skeptically?

They argue conditioning outcomes can be fully explained by behaviors alone. Signup and view all the answers

How can conditioned responses influence attitudes in children based on the content?

Associations made with different stimuli can shape character evaluations. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of cognitive processes in the conditioning of likes and dislikes?

Awareness of associations enhances the strength of the conditioned response. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'biological predispositions' refer to in the context of learning?

An organism's natural inclinations to learn specific behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

At what age do infants begin to imitate various novel gestures?

8 to 16 months Signup and view all the answers

What behavior do 2- to 5-year-old children exhibit when observing adults, according to the research?

Overimitate irrelevant actions Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best describes the human predisposition to learn through observation?

It is influenced by brain's response to observing others. Signup and view all the answers

What impact can prosocial modeling have on behavior?

It can promote similar positive behaviors in others. Signup and view all the answers

What is one potential effect of viewing prosocial media according to the research?

Enhanced likelihood of helping others Signup and view all the answers

How do children's brains respond when they observe others' emotional expressions?

They show similar brain activity as experienced by the observed. Signup and view all the answers

What is one reason cited for why we might misremember an action we observed as one we performed?

Because our brain simulates and vicariously experiences observed actions. Signup and view all the answers

Which examples illustrate the negative impact of antisocial modeling?

Increased aggression in children experiencing physical punishment Signup and view all the answers

How can reading fictional narratives influence real-life behavior?

It can prompt readers to engage in similar positive actions. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement reflects the importance of modeling in social learning?

Modeling behavior provides powerful examples for imitation. Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between empathy and brain activity when observing pain in others?

Empathy mirrors brain activity related to actual pain experienced by others. Signup and view all the answers

What commonality is seen in children's imitation of adult behaviors across different cultures?

Children universally demonstrate similar overimitation of adult actions. Signup and view all the answers

What term describes when animals revert to instinctual behaviors during operant conditioning?

Instinctive drift Signup and view all the answers

What type of coping strategy is employed when one feels they can change a stressor?

Problem-focused coping Signup and view all the answers

What psychological effect may occur when individuals feel a lack of control over their circumstances?

Learned helplessness Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon explains why excessive rewards can diminish a person's intrinsic motivation?

Overjustification effect Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following abilities is associated with strong self-control and predicts health and success?

Self-control Signup and view all the answers

What is referred to when a child learns behavior by observing the actions of others?

Observational learning Signup and view all the answers

What process describes the mapping of one's environment that allows for navigation based on prior knowledge?

Latent learning Signup and view all the answers

Which term specifically refers to the belief that one can control their own fate?

Internal locus of control Signup and view all the answers

How might insight learning be defined in terms of problem-solving?

Suddenly discovering a solution without trial-and-error Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon explains why children who observe aggressive behavior are more likely to imitate it?

Vicarious reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

What type of neurons are believed to provide a neural basis for imitation according to the research conducted on monkeys?

Mirror neurons Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a potential consequence of observing violence, particularly in children?

Desensitization to aggression Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'modeling' refer to in the context of observational learning?

Imitating behaviors seen in others Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following outcomes is NOT attributed to Bandura's Bobo Doll experiment?

Increased empathy through observed behavior Signup and view all the answers

In Bandura's perspective, how do we learn to anticipate consequences of behaviors?

By watching similar individuals in social contexts Signup and view all the answers

In operant conditioning, what effect on motivation can arise when rewards are given for tasks previously enjoyed?

Decrease in intrinsic motivation Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of observational learning is highlighted by the findings from fMRI scans?

Reward systems in the brain activate during observation Signup and view all the answers

Which best describes the impact of cognitive processes on classical conditioning?

They help animals predict the timing of unconditioned stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

How did Bandura’s research on the Bobo Doll contribute to social issues?

Informing policies to mitigate aggression in children Signup and view all the answers

What is suggested by Lord Chesterfield’s idea on imitation?

Imitation significantly shapes our identities Signup and view all the answers

In the context of animal social learning, what can be inferred about the behavior of humpback whales?

New foraging strategies can be learned and spread through observation Signup and view all the answers

What might be the outcome if children observe a safe navigation through a fearful situation?

Their learned fears may decrease Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'mirror neurons' refer to?

Neurons that fire when we observe or perform an action Signup and view all the answers

What was the significant finding from the study of vervet monkeys regarding observational learning?

Preferences learned by adults can influence offspring behavior Signup and view all the answers

What does Bandura suggest as a major benefit of research pursued 'for its own sake'?

It often uncovers unforeseen applications long after the fact Signup and view all the answers

What did the activation of the monkey's monitor in the study signify?

The monkey's neurons were mirroring observed actions Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary factor influencing the strength of a child's internalized conscience?

Parental modeling of moral concern Signup and view all the answers

What effect does observational learning have when children are exposed to hypocritical behavior?

They imitate both the behavior and the hypocrisy Signup and view all the answers

What antisocial behavior might be linked to observational learning from a violent environment?

Higher propensity to cheat and lie Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements reflects a concern about media violence's impact on behavior?

Media violence desensitizes viewers to real-life aggression. Signup and view all the answers

How does excessive screen time negatively impact children according to the discussion?

It replaces time spent on other beneficial activities. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of children's learning is particularly influenced by their parents according to the content?

Their ethical and moral values Signup and view all the answers

Which researchers contributed notably to our understanding of observational learning?

Albert Bandura and B.F. Skinner Signup and view all the answers

What might be a potential consequence of children watching violent media according to the content?

Increased likelihood of desensitization to violence Signup and view all the answers

How may aggressive behavior in children be influenced according to the discussed environmental factors?

Via observational learning from aggressive role models Signup and view all the answers

What is indicated about the portrayal of violence in prime-time television?

It typically features violence going unpunished. Signup and view all the answers

Which principle reflects the learning process that enables children to navigate behaviors they observe?

Observational learning Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant consequence of the environmental influence on learned behaviors in children?

Children raised in chaotic environments often exhibit similar behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

What major factor contributes to the likelihood of children practicing their parents' religion?

Parents regularly attending religious services with them Signup and view all the answers

According to observations, a significant portion of TV programming features violence. What percentage is reported?

58% Signup and view all the answers

What does Weber's law state about stimuli and perception?

To be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage. Signup and view all the answers

What is sensory adaptation primarily characterized by?

Diminished sensitivity due to constant stimulation. Signup and view all the answers

How does constant exposure to an unchanging stimulus affect nerve cell activity?

Nerve cells fire less frequently. Signup and view all the answers

Why do we not lose sight of an object we are staring at continuously?

Our eyes are always moving, causing stimulation changes. Signup and view all the answers

What percentage difference in tone frequency is required for perception according to the principles discussed?

0.3 percent Signup and view all the answers

What process is demonstrated when children replicate the actions they observe in others?

Observational learning Signup and view all the answers

How does vicarious reinforcement influence behavior?

It increases the likelihood of imitating observed actions. Signup and view all the answers

Which brain regions are associated with the mirroring of observed actions?

Frontal lobes Signup and view all the answers

What is a likely outcome when children observe inconsistent behaviors from a model?

They may imitate the hypocrisy of the model. Signup and view all the answers

What can contribute to the aggression seen in the violence-viewing effect?

Imitation of violent behaviors Signup and view all the answers

What term best describes the learning process by which children learn languages?

Modeling Signup and view all the answers

Which could potentially interfere with associative learning when we vicariously experience observations?

Misremembering personal experiences Signup and view all the answers

In what scenario is prosocial modeling most impactful?

When the model consistently demonstrates prosocial behavior Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the role of mirror neurons?

To support observational learning Signup and view all the answers

What behavioral change occurs when media violence is consumed frequently?

Increased aggression Signup and view all the answers

When children learn by imitating clear prosocial behaviors, what factor enhances this process?

A consistency between the model's words and actions Signup and view all the answers

What is one characteristic of antisocial modeling?

It can lead to the imitation of negative behaviors Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key effect of observing violence in media?

Increased tendency to exhibit aggression Signup and view all the answers

What is top-down processing primarily concerned with?

Interpreting information based on experience and expectations Signup and view all the answers

How does selective attention impact our ability to focus on multiple stimuli?

It limits our conscious awareness to one focus at a time Signup and view all the answers

Which phenomenon illustrates a failure to notice objects due to focused attention elsewhere?

Inattentional blindness Signup and view all the answers

What is a classic example of selective attention described in the content?

Listening to a conversation amidst background noise Signup and view all the answers

What happens during rapid toggling between different activities?

It causes a delay in responding to complex tasks Signup and view all the answers

Which factor primarily captures our limited attention according to the content?

Things we perceive as important Signup and view all the answers

What is one consequence of distracted driving mentioned in the content?

Increased risk of traffic accidents Signup and view all the answers

How does inattentional blindness relate to everyday experiences?

It prevents us from seeing all visual stimuli in our environment Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of using a cell phone while driving, as discussed in the content?

It equals the risk associated with drunk driving Signup and view all the answers

What best explains the cognitive radar concept in selective attention?

It brings unattended stimuli into awareness if deemed relevant Signup and view all the answers

What did researchers demonstrate about selective attention through the basketball video experiment?

Attention can be focused entirely on one task, preventing awareness of others Signup and view all the answers

Which cognitive process helps identify complex images, like hidden figures?

Top-down processing Signup and view all the answers

What can increase the likelihood of distractions leading to accidents, based on the content?

Texting while driving Signup and view all the answers

What technique involves removing reinforcement to reduce unwanted behaviors such as temper tantrums?

Extinction Signup and view all the answers

Which reinforcement technique encourages a child to engage in prosocial behavior instead of throwing a tantrum?

Positive reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

What behavior did Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiments demonstrate?

Children are likely to imitate the behavior of adults. Signup and view all the answers

How might a parent use the process of modeling to help a child manage temper tantrums?

By showing the child how to express disappointment calmly Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of negative reinforcement in managing temper tantrums?

To remove an aversive stimulus to stop tantrums Signup and view all the answers

What was established by Robert Rescorla and Allan Wagner's experiments?

The importance of cognitive factors in classical conditioning. Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario best illustrates the law of effect?

A dog is rewarded with treats for listening to commands. Signup and view all the answers

In behavior shaping, what does the term 'successive approximations' refer to?

Gradually reinforcing a behavior until it is fully learned Signup and view all the answers

A child learns to avoid crying when looking at a pile of peas by watching a parent react calmly to vegetables. This is an example of which type of learning?

Modeling Signup and view all the answers

What process leads to the acquisition of a conditioned response?

Pairing a neutral stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus repeatedly. Signup and view all the answers

When an organism responds to a specific stimulus but not to others, this is an example of what?

Discrimination. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between bottom-up and top-down processing?

The direction in which information is processed Signup and view all the answers

In which scenario is negative reinforcement at play?

A teenager avoids a bad mood by completing homework. Signup and view all the answers

How does selective attention affect our perception of sensory stimuli?

It filters out irrelevant stimuli to focus on important ones Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by an absolute threshold in sensory perception?

The smallest amount of stimulus detectable 50% of the time Signup and view all the answers

What conclusion do taste aversion studies typically draw?

Animals learning aversion requires cognitive assessment. Signup and view all the answers

Mary checks her phone every 30 minutes but finds messages only sometimes; what kind of reinforcement schedule is this?

Variable-interval. Signup and view all the answers

Subliminal stimuli refer to stimuli that are:

Below the absolute threshold for conscious perception Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon occurs when a conditioned response reappears after a period of extinction?

Spontaneous recovery. Signup and view all the answers

What does sensory adaptation allow us to do in our environment?

Become less responsive to unchanging stimuli Signup and view all the answers

What type of reinforcement schedule is evident when an employee is paid $10 per pair of shoes sold?

Fixed-ratio. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the process by which sensory receptors transmit information to the brain?

Transformation of signals into neural impulses Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes positive and negative punishment?

Positive makes it likely a behavior continues, negative makes it unlikely. Signup and view all the answers

How does top-down processing influence our perception of objects?

It combines sensory input with previous knowledge and expectations Signup and view all the answers

In the scenario where Jazz associates drinking with sickness, her sickness is an example of what?

Conditioned response. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of behavioral psychology in terms of learning?

Observable behavior. Signup and view all the answers

When an employee receives a paycheck every Friday regardless of sales, this is an example of which reinforcement schedule?

Fixed-interval. Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon occurs when individuals fail to notice a change in their environment due to a lack of attention?

Change blindness Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process in which sensory stimuli are converted into neural impulses that the brain can understand?

Transduction Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario exemplifies inattentional blindness in a real-life context?

Missing a gorilla while counting passes in a basketball game Signup and view all the answers

How did the participants in Johansson's study demonstrate choice blindness?

By failing to notice their own choice was switched Signup and view all the answers

What did the study about 'inattentional deafness' reveal about attention and awareness?

Selective attention can lead to a lack of awareness in hearing tasks Signup and view all the answers

Which concept explains why people may not notice a change in the speaker during a conversation?

Change deafness Signup and view all the answers

What is the likely consequence of someone's attention being focused during a magic trick?

Individuals may miss the central action of the trick Signup and view all the answers

How does selective attention impact our everyday experiences, according to the experiments with the gorilla and radiologists?

It can lead to missing crucial visual details Signup and view all the answers

Which research method was employed to demonstrate the concept of selective attention with the gorilla?

Controlled laboratory experiment Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines 'popout' in the context of attention?

Instant recognition of distinct stimuli Signup and view all the answers

What is a common error in perception illustrated by the concept of change blindness?

Overlooking changes during a visual interruption Signup and view all the answers

In psychological terms, how does attention affect perception based on the studies mentioned?

Attention can lead to overlooking significant details in the environment Signup and view all the answers

What was primarily revealed through the experiment with radiologists searching for cancer nodules?

Selective attention can cause them to miss larger visual stimuli Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of selective attention relate to everyday decision-making based on Johansson's research?

People may overlook vital information affecting their choices Signup and view all the answers

What defines an absolute threshold in psychophysics?

The minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a stimulus 50 percent of the time. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor does NOT affect the detection of stimuli according to signal detection theory?

Color of the stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What does the difference threshold measure?

The smallest change in stimulus intensity that can be detected half the time. Signup and view all the answers

According to Weber's law, how do stimuli need to differ for a person to perceive a change?

By a variable amount depending on the stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What happens to our ability to differentiate stimuli as the size of the original stimulus increases?

The difference threshold becomes larger. Signup and view all the answers

Which example illustrates a subliminal stimulus?

A visual image briefly flashed on a screen without conscious perception. Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of an absolute threshold in everyday life?

Feeling the warmth of a candle flame from 30 feet away. Signup and view all the answers

How does the experience of a musician help them detect subtle differences in sound?

Musicians enhance their difference threshold through training. Signup and view all the answers

In what scenario might a person have a heightened sensitivity to certain stimuli?

When they are excessively hungry. Signup and view all the answers

What psychological conditions can influence the detection of stimuli?

Expectations and motivation. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT related to psychophysics?

Behavior modification techniques Signup and view all the answers

For a stimulus to be detected according to signal detection theory, what must usually be present?

An adequate level of specific psychological motivation. Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes stimuli that cannot be consciously detected half the time?

Subliminal stimuli Signup and view all the answers

What does sensory adaptation primarily allow us to focus on?

Informative changes in the environment Signup and view all the answers

How can distractions from notifications impact our performance?

They can harm our performance on ongoing tasks. Signup and view all the answers

What does the illusion created by the morphed angry and scared faces illustrate about perception?

Adaptation occurs at the level of the brain. Signup and view all the answers

Why is repeated exposure to the same stimulus considered boring in terms of sensory adaptation?

It allows attention to shift to more important details. Signup and view all the answers

What type of stimuli are smartphones designed to provide to capture attention?

Novel and changing stimuli Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the principle of how we perceive the world?

We adapt our perception based on what is useful for us. Signup and view all the answers

What does the visual system's adaptation to emotions demonstrate?

The visual system's responsiveness can diminish over time. Signup and view all the answers

What is indicated by the phenomenon where an individual becomes oblivious to their surroundings while focused on a task?

The effects of sensory adaptation and focused attention. Signup and view all the answers

What process allows sensory receptors to convert incoming stimulus energies into neural impulses?

Transduction Signup and view all the answers

How does selective attention influence our perception when we focus on one particular task?

It blocks out most other stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of processing is initiated by our sensory receptors and works from the ground level up to the brain?

Bottom-up processing Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time?

Absolute threshold Signup and view all the answers

Why might Tyshane no longer feel cold after jumping into the pool?

Due to sensory adaptation. Signup and view all the answers

What does Weber's Law state regarding the difference threshold?

It requires a constant percentage difference to be perceived. Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the phenomenon where exposure to one stimulus influences the response to another stimulus, often without conscious awareness?

Priming Signup and view all the answers

What is termed as the mental assumptions and tendencies that shape how we perceive stimuli?

Perceptual set Signup and view all the answers

Which process involves recognizing and interpreting sensory stimuli to assign them meaning?

Perception Signup and view all the answers

What is known as the phenomenon when we fail to notice changes in our environment because our attention is focused elsewhere?

Inattentional blindness Signup and view all the answers

Which type of threshold can be described as the minimum stimulus difference needed to detect a change?

Difference threshold Signup and view all the answers

How does sensory adaptation benefit our perception of the environment?

It allows us to ignore unimportant stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of perception is likely influenced by an individual's motivation and emotional state?

Perceptual set Signup and view all the answers

What does perceptual set refer to?

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT likely to influence perceptual set?

The brightness of the stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

In the experiment with the airline pilot and co-pilot, what caused the miscommunication?

Expectation to hear a different phrase. Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon occurs when people perceive stimuli based on their expectations and prior experiences?

Top-down processing. Signup and view all the answers

What was the result when children tasted french fries served in a McDonald’s bag?

They believed the fries were tastier due to the package design. Signup and view all the answers

How does the context influence perception according to social psychologist Lee Ross?

By creating biases based on specific situations. Signup and view all the answers

What did researchers find when campus bar patrons sampled beer with vinegar?

They enjoyed the beverage more when it was labeled differently. Signup and view all the answers

What was the surprising outcome regarding participants who heard their own voice during a color naming experiment?

They assumed the altered voice was correct. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of how perceptual set impacts interpretation in everyday scenarios?

Seeing shapes in cloud formations. Signup and view all the answers

What do schemas do in terms of interpreting sensations?

They help organize and interpret unfamiliar information. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of the Loch Ness monster example, what influenced different perceptions of the same image?

Prior expectations formed by unambiguous images. Signup and view all the answers

Which concept illustrates how perceptions can be affected by emotional and motivational states?

Contextual bias. Signup and view all the answers

What is one potential drawback of having a strong perceptual set?

It may inhibit recognition of contradictory evidence. Signup and view all the answers

What determines the hue, or color, that we perceive when viewing light?

The light's wavelength Signup and view all the answers

How do bees perceive the spectrum of light compared to humans?

Bees cannot see red but can see ultraviolet light Signup and view all the answers

What role does the iris play in the eye?

It controls the size of the pupil opening Signup and view all the answers

What is the process called when the lens of the eye changes shape to focus on objects?

Accommodation Signup and view all the answers

What structure in the eye is responsible for converting light energy into neural impulses?

Retina Signup and view all the answers

How does the amplitude of a light wave affect what we perceive?

It influences brightness Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the image of an object as it is projected onto the retina?

The image appears upside down and reversed Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary factor that determines the intensity of light as perceived by the human eye?

Amplitude Signup and view all the answers

What scientific principle was disproved by Johannes Kepler regarding how we see images?

Watery fluids invert images Signup and view all the answers

What is the distance between successive peaks of a light wave referred to as?

Wavelength Signup and view all the answers

What impact does frequency have on the perception of light?

Shorter wavelength corresponds to higher frequency Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the image on the retina when light rays focus incorrectly?

It appears clear for near objects only Signup and view all the answers

How does the eye's pupil respond in different light conditions?

Dilates in dim light and constricts in bright light Signup and view all the answers

What type of cells in the retina of a frog’s eye are responsible for detecting moving stimuli?

Bug detector cells Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brain does the retinal information correspond to after passing through the thalamus?

Occipital lobe Signup and view all the answers

When light stimulates both red-sensitive and green-sensitive cones, which color do we perceive?

Yellow Signup and view all the answers

How does motivation affect perception according to the findings?

It can distort the perceived distance of objects. Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of rods in the retina?

Low-light vision Signup and view all the answers

Why do most colorblind individuals often still perceive yellow?

Yellow is not based on red or green receptors. Signup and view all the answers

What perception change occurs when someone is angry?

They are more likely to perceive neutral objects as guns. Signup and view all the answers

The Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory suggests that the retina has how many types of color receptors?

Three Signup and view all the answers

Which claim about extrasensory perception (ESP) is widely accepted among research psychologists?

Most scientists are skeptical of the existence of ESP. Signup and view all the answers

What does the phenomenon of top-down processing involve?

A combination of experiences, assumptions, and emotions. Signup and view all the answers

Which animal is mentioned as having an impressive night vision due to a higher number of rods in the retina?

Cats Signup and view all the answers

What term describes an individual’s inability to distinguish certain colors, like red and green?

Dichromacy Signup and view all the answers

What can influence how individuals perceive loneliness according to the emotional context?

Previous experiences of affection. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason a tomato appears red to the human eye?

It absorbs all wavelengths except red. Signup and view all the answers

How might feelings of being loved affect perceptions in stressful marital events?

They can lessen the perceived severity of threats. Signup and view all the answers

What type of perception issue do individuals face when they are exhausted?

Locations seem farther away than they are. Signup and view all the answers

What role do ganglion axons play in the visual pathway?

Transmit signals from the retina to the occipital lobe. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of vision is primarily associated with cones?

Color vision Signup and view all the answers

What is a key criticism of psychics based on their predictions over time?

Their accuracy rates are often very low. Signup and view all the answers

Which finding relates to how physical conditions affect perception?

Carrying heavy loads can make hills appear steeper. Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon occurs when retinal cells misfire due to pressure on the eyelid?

Phosphene phenomenon Signup and view all the answers

What role do emotions play in interpreting neutral stimuli?

They can skew interpretations towards negative meanings. Signup and view all the answers

What concept describes the brain’s construction of color based on light energy striking the retina?

Color perception Signup and view all the answers

What psychological effect can occur when someone is exposed to sad music?

They perceive sad meanings in ambiguous words. Signup and view all the answers

What is true about the vision of dogs compared to humans?

Dogs have dichromatic vision. Signup and view all the answers

What is the implication of seeing a target as larger for athletes?

It enhances their focus and performance. Signup and view all the answers

Which theory addresses unsolved mysteries of color vision beyond the Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory?

Opponent-process theory Signup and view all the answers

In parapsychology, what is the focus of study?

Paranormal phenomena and ESP. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of perceptual set in perception?

To predispose interpretation of ambiguous stimuli Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic is associated with telepathy as a form of ESP?

Communicating mind-to-mind Signup and view all the answers

What has the scientific community primarily concluded about claims of ESP?

Research has failed to replicate ESP under controlled conditions. Signup and view all the answers

What would be an appropriate next step if a genuine ESP event occurs under controlled conditions?

Conduct further controlled tests to verify the claim Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines clairvoyance?

Ability to see events happening elsewhere Signup and view all the answers

How do learned schemas influence perception?

They create biases in information processing. Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of perception is primarily influenced by emotions?

The interpretation and response to stimuli Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant challenge to the proof of psychic abilities?

The inability to conduct experiments under controlled conditions. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the concept of context effects in perception?

The influence of surrounding circumstances on interpretation Signup and view all the answers

What is essential to the skeptical scrutiny that science applies to new ideas?

A thorough validation process for evidence Signup and view all the answers

What challenge does belief in ESP present for scientific inquiry?

It requires a belief in untestable phenomena. Signup and view all the answers

What role does motivation play in perception?

It affects which stimuli we notice and prioritize. Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario best illustrates the concept of bottom-up processing?

Seeing colors and shapes before forming an image Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of rods in the human eye?

Enable black and white vision in dim light Signup and view all the answers

Which structure in the eye is primarily responsible for color vision and detail?

Fovea Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the visual information after the optic nerve collects it?

It goes through a momentary stopover at the thalamus Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic differentiates cones from rods in terms of their connection to the brain?

Rods connect to multiple bipolar cells Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon occurs where the optic nerve exits the eye?

Blind spot Signup and view all the answers

Why do rods allow for better peripheral vision compared to cones?

They remain sensitive in dim light Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the retina hosts the majority of cones for high visual acuity?

Fovea Signup and view all the answers

How many types of photoreceptors are primarily involved in vision?

Two Signup and view all the answers

What is the typical duration for the eye to fully adapt to darkness?

20 minutes Signup and view all the answers

What allows the brain to compensate for the blind spot in vision?

Visual filling in Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following characteristic is true regarding the optic nerve?

Sends nearly 1 million messages at once Signup and view all the answers

What role do bipolar cells play in the visual processing pathway?

Relay messages from rods and cones to ganglion cells Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the differences between rods and cones?

Rods have a higher sensitivity to light than cones Signup and view all the answers

What are the two additional color processes proposed by Hering?

Blue versus yellow and red versus green Signup and view all the answers

How does the opponent-process theory explain negative afterimages?

By attributing afterimages to the fatigue of opposing color responses Signup and view all the answers

According to the opponent-process theory, which of the following pairs of colors are considered opponents?

Red and green Signup and view all the answers

What do feature detectors in the brain respond to?

Physical features of visual stimuli like lines and edges Signup and view all the answers

What is the first stage in the processing of color vision according to current understanding?

Responses from the retina’s cones to color stimuli Signup and view all the answers

What happens when the green neural response is fatigued after staring at green?

Red responses are enhanced when viewing white Signup and view all the answers

Which area of the brain is primarily associated with feature detection?

Occipital lobe Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of supercell clusters in visual processing?

To integrate information from feature detectors into complex patterns Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by the phrase 'color vision depends on three sets of opposing retinal processes'?

Certain colors inhibit others from being perceived Signup and view all the answers

Which color pairing allows for the perception of a reddish-blue color like magenta?

Red and blue Signup and view all the answers

How does the brain handle visual stimuli according to Hubel and Wiesel's findings?

It deconstructs and then reassembles visual images Signup and view all the answers

What specific purpose do specialized cells in the brain serve concerning important stimuli?

They respond to biologically significant objects or events Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the perception of colors when someone stares at a colored image for too long?

The opposing color appears when looking at a neutral surface Signup and view all the answers

What theory suggests that color perception occurs in two stages?

Opponent-process theory Signup and view all the answers

Which type of cones are responsible for detecting blue light?

Short-wavelength cones Signup and view all the answers

What role do feature detectors play in vision?

They respond to specific visual elements. Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is primarily responsible for color vision?

Cones Signup and view all the answers

Which process allows the brain to handle multiple aspects of a visual scene simultaneously?

Parallel processing Signup and view all the answers

What physical property is associated with bright, electric blue light waves?

Short wavelength; small amplitude Signup and view all the answers

Which layer of the eye is primarily involved in focusing light onto the retina?

Cornea Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following colors is coded by an opponent process involving blue?

Yellow Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of vision can feature detectors NOT process?

General shapes Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the color information as it travels from cones to the brain?

It is coded into pairs of opponent colors. Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of the predictions made by psychics after the Chilean mine collapse?

All 33 miners were ultimately rescued. Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of visionaries accurately reported the location of Lindbergh's child's body?

Five percent Signup and view all the answers

According to the analysis of a famed psychic's missing person cases, what was a recurring issue?

There were numerous unknown outcomes and incorrect predictions. Signup and view all the answers

What does the data suggest about the predictions of everyday people's visions compared to psychics?

Both have the same rate of accuracy. Signup and view all the answers

What did the 'mind machine' experiment reveal about people's predictions of coin tosses?

Participants were correct 49.8 percent of the time. Signup and view all the answers

What criticism did Daryl Bem face regarding his ESP experiments?

His methods were described as badly flawed by critics. Signup and view all the answers

What should be the foundational approach to test claims of ESP according to scientific principles?

Conduct reproducible experiments. Signup and view all the answers

What common experience might explain the seemingly uncanny accuracy of some predictions?

The luck of the draw with many coincidences. Signup and view all the answers

How does the Spanish proverb relate to the performances of psychics?

It implies that sometimes incorrect predictions can still be perceived as valid. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main reason for skepticism towards psychic phenomena as described?

The lack of reproducible evidence. Signup and view all the answers

What is the implication of the statement 'to be sure of hitting the target, shoot first and call whatever you hit the target'?

It highlights the random nature of psychic claims. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of acknowledging the history of parapsychology as described?

It illustrates the long-standing challenges in proving psychic phenomena. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key factor impeding the acceptance of ESP claims in mainstream science?

Contradicting existing scientific principles. Signup and view all the answers

What role does ambiguity play in the predictions made by psychics like Nostradamus?

It enhances the likelihood of predictions appearing correct. Signup and view all the answers

How does the outcome of the 'mind machine' experiment reflect on the effectiveness of psychic predictions?

It confirmed that predictions are simply random guesses. Signup and view all the answers

What happens when the brain's face-processing areas are disrupted?

People can recognize objects but not faces. Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of parallel processing in visual perception?

To handle multiple aspects of visual information simultaneously. Signup and view all the answers

What areas are involved in constructing visual perceptions according to the concept of binding?

Multiple visual cortex areas that integrate various sensory inputs. Signup and view all the answers

What role do rods and cones play in the retina?

Rods are sensitive to faint light, while cones are sensitive to color and detail. Signup and view all the answers

Which best describes a phenomenon that can occur following damage to the brain's visual cortex?

Experiencing blindsight, where individuals respond correctly without conscious visual awareness. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'grandmother cells' refer to in the context of neural processing?

Cells that respond selectively to specific visual stimuli, such as individual faces. Signup and view all the answers

How does the brain achieve the integration of various visual aspects?

Through parallel processing and binding the outputs from different visual teams. Signup and view all the answers

What does extensive brain activation for face recognition signify?

It requires a disproportionately large area of the cortex for processing. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of vision does motion perception specifically rely on in brain processing?

The brain's separate processing areas dedicated to different visual functions. Signup and view all the answers

What is a notable outcome for someone who damages the motion-processing area of their brain?

They will struggle to perceive motion and find it challenging to interpret fluid movements. Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of dual processing refer to in visual perception?

Using two separate processing streams for perceiving and acting. Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic of the visible light spectrum determines its hue?

Its wavelength. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key feature of the retina's processing of visual information?

Light-sensitive rods and color-sensitive cones convert light energy into neural impulses. Signup and view all the answers

How does the brain typically process visual stimuli upon encountering them?

By dividing them into subdimensions and analyzing each aspect. Signup and view all the answers

Psychology Learning Concepts

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary way humans adapt to their environments according to the definition of learning?

Which type of learning involves repeating acts that lead to rewards?

How do learned associations influence habitual behaviors?

What philosophical perspective is reflected in the idea that we learn through association?

What is a potential effect of using a red pen for grading, as discussed in the content?

Which concept best describes learning that occurs through observation and language?

What can increase self-control according to the discussion on beneficial habits?

How might environmental context influence a person's attitude towards education taxes?

What is the term used to describe the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli?

How do classical and operant conditioning differ in terms of the responses they focus on?

What physiological response might be conditioned through classical conditioning in a drug-using context?

In the Watson and Rayner experiment with Little Albert, what was the role of the loud noise?

What is a potential consequence of classical conditioning related to dieting?

What psychological principle did Pavlov's work primarily illustrate?

What was the primary outcome observed in Little Albert after conditioning?

What does the concept of generalization in classical conditioning refer to?

In the context of Pavlov's work, why is his research important for understanding learning?

What is the effect of classical conditioning on the immune response?

What did Watson's experiment with Little Albert suggest about human emotions?

Why might goal-oriented programs ask clients to avoid certain settings related to past drug use?

What role does the concept of a conditioned stimulus play in classical conditioning?

What does higher-order conditioning involve?

What is the term for the diminished response to a conditioned stimulus when it is presented without the unconditioned stimulus?

Which phenomenon occurs when a conditioned response reappears after a pause despite prior extinction?

What does generalization refer to in the context of classical conditioning?

Why might generalized fears linger after traumatic experiences?

In Pavlov’s experiments, what type of stimuli did the dogs continue to respond to after conditioning?

What occurs during the process known as extinction?

What can be inferred about the relationship between discrimination and generalization?

What is the result of generalization in terms of responses to similar stimuli?

During classical conditioning, what is it called when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus?

What is meant by 'discrimination' in the context of classical conditioning?

Which might be an example of higher-order conditioning in everyday life?

What does the term 'stimulus generalization' imply about responses to different stimuli?

What is classical conditioning primarily concerned with?

Which of the following best defines acquisition in classical conditioning?

In behaviorism, what is emphasized as the primary focus of study?

What typically happens during extinction in classical conditioning?

Who conducted seminal experiments that formed the basis of classical conditioning?

What effect does generalization have in classical conditioning?

What is respondent behavior in the context of learning?

What is the average number of days it takes for a healthy behavior to become a habit?

Which term describes the decrease in responsiveness to a repeated stimulus?

What technique was used by Watson and Rayner in their experiment with Little Albert?

In classical conditioning, what do we learn to associate?

What is the role of counterconditioning in behavioral therapy?

What is the primary difference between respondent behavior and operant behavior?

What was significant about the advertising campaigns that Watson developed?

How did Pavlov’s work impact our understanding of emotional responses?

In the sea slug example, what happens when it is repeatedly squirted with water?

What type of learning occurs when one observes another's experience?

What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?

In the context of behavioral strategies, what role does extinction play?

What do classical and operant conditioning both involve?

How might a seal learn to repeat certain behaviors in an aquarium?

Why is habituation considered a form of learning?

What is the key factor that distinguishes classical conditioning from operant conditioning?

What does cognitive learning involve?

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of operant conditioning?

What is a common outcome of repeated stimulation in habituation?

What is an example of respondent behavior?

What is the primary characteristic of classical conditioning?

Which statement best reflects the concept of behaviorism?

In Pavlov's experiments, what role did the tone play initially?

What was the primary methodology used by Pavlov in his experiments?

What happens after repeated pairings of a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?

Which of the following best shows operant conditioning?

What did Pavlov conclude about the process of learning?

Why did behaviorists like Watson dismiss mental processes?

In Pavlov's research, what does the term 'unconditioned stimulus' refer to?

What type of learning involves watching others and then imitating their behavior?

What aspect of behavior did Watson suggest should be the focus of psychological research?

Why are habits, such as having something sweet with coffee, hard to break?

During conditioning, what is an example of a neutral stimulus?

What is the role of the unconditioned response in classical conditioning?

What is an unconditioned response (UR) in classical conditioning?