Psychology: Individual differences

• Variations occur in how people perceive, learn, think, and perform tasks
• Psychologists study these individual differences
• Intelligence is a key attribute studied by psychologists, involving the ability to understand complex ideas, adapt, learn from experience, reason, and overcome obstacles

Individual Differences in Human Functioning

• Individual differences are common and contribute to the diversity of nature
• Individuals vary in physical and psychological traits, with traits existing in varying degrees
• The study of individual differences examines how and why people differ
• While personal traits influence behavior, situational factors also play a significant role
• Situationism suggests circumstances greatly influence behavior, sometimes causing individuals with differing traits to respond similarly

Assessment of Psychological Attributes

• Psychological attributes are involved in phenomena from reaction time to happiness
• Assessment measures psychological attributes using multiple methods and comparison standards
• Attributes are measured using scientific procedures to ensure validity
• Formal assessments are objective, standardized, and organized, while informal assessments can be subjective
• Psychologists use assessments to predict future behavior and intervene if needed
• Attribute selection depends on the purpose of the assessment
• Psychological assessment uses tests to evaluate abilities, behaviors, and qualities

Domains of Psychological Attributes

• Psychological attributes are complex and multi-dimensional
• Complete assessment requires evaluating cognitive, emotional, and social functioning
• Intelligence: The global capacity to understand, think rationally, and use resources effectively
• Intelligence tests measure general cognitive competence
• Aptitude: An individual's potential for acquiring skills, predicted by aptitude tests
• Interest: An individual's preference for specific activities, influencing satisfaction and performance
• Personality: Enduring characteristics that make individuals distinct, assessed by personality tests to explain and predict behavior
• Values: Enduring beliefs about ideal behavior, guiding actions and judgments, assessed to determine dominant values

Assessment Methods

• Psychological Test: Objective and standardized measure of mental or behavioral characteristics

• Used for diagnosis, guidance, selection, placement, and training

• Objective and projective tests are available

• Interview: Seeking information from a person on a one-to-one basis

• Case Study: In-depth study of an individual's psychological attributes and history in context

• Observation: Recording behavior in real-time using systematic and organized procedures

• Self-Report: Providing factual information and opinions about oneself

Intelligence

• Intelligence helps understand individual differences and adaptation to the environment
• Psychological intelligence differs from common sense notions
• Intelligent individuals have mental alertness, wit, learning speed, and relational understanding
• Alfred Binet: Intelligence is the ability to judge, understand, and reason well
• Wechsler: Intelligence is the global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment
• Other psychologists: Intelligent individuals adapt to and modify the environment

Theories of Intelligence

• Psychometric Approach: Intelligence as an aggregate of abilities, expressed as a single index

• Information-Processing Approach: Describes the processes used in intellectual reasoning and problem-solving

• Alfred Binet's Uni/One Factor Theory: Intelligence consists of one similar set of abilities for solving any problem

• Charles Spearman's Two-Factor Theory: Intelligence includes a general factor (g-factor) and specific factors (s-factors)

• g-factor: Mental operations common to all performances

• s-factor: Specific abilities for excelling in certain domains

• Louis Thurstone's Theory of Primary Mental Abilities: Intelligence consists of seven independent primary abilities

1. Verbal Comprehension
2. Numerical Abilities
3. Spatial Relations
4. Perceptual Speed
5. Word Fluency
6. Memory
7. Inductive Reasoning

• Arthur Jensen's Hierarchical Model: Intelligence operates at two levels

• Level I: Associative learning (rote memory)

• Level II: Cognitive competence (higher-order skills)

• J.P. Guilford's Structure-of-Intellect Model: Classifies intelligence by operations, contents, and products.

• Operations: Cognition, memory, production, evaluation

• Contents: Visual, auditory, symbolic, semantic, behavioral

• Products: Units, classes, relations, systems, transformations, implications

Theory of Multiple Intelligences

• Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences states intelligence has distinct types that are independent of each other

• Multiple intelligences interact to solve problems

• Linguistic intelligence involves the ability to produce and use language effectively

• Spatial intelligence involves forming and using mental images

• Pilots, sailors, sculptors, painters, and architects often possess spatial intelligence

• Musical intelligence involves producing and manipulating musical rhythms and patterns

• Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence involves using the body creatively

• Interpersonal intelligence involves understanding others’ motives and feelings

• Intrapersonal intelligence involves understanding one’s own feelings and desires

• Logical-mathematical intelligence involves logical thinking and problem-solving

• Naturalistic intelligence involves recognizing features of the natural world

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

• Robert Sternberg proposes the triarchic theory

• Intelligence is the ability to adapt, shape, and select environments

• This encompasses componential, experiential, and contextual intelligence

• Componential Intelligence (analytical) is used to analyze information and solve problems, it includes 3 components:

  • Knowledge acquisition
  • Meta Component
  • Performance component

• Experiential Intelligence (creative) is involved to use past experiences creatively

• Contextual Intelligence (practical) involves dealing with daily environmental demands adaptively

PASS Model of Intelligence

• Developed by J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby, says intellectual activity involves interconnected neurological systems

• Arousal/Attention: Enables attending to stimuli

• Optimal arousal focuses attention on relevant problem aspects

• Simultaneous and Successive Processing: Integrates information into knowledge systems

• Simultaneous processing comprehends relationships in meaningful patterns

• Successive processing remembers information serially

• Planning: is essential for intelligence

• Cognitive Assessment System (CAS): Assesses cognitive functions independent of schooling, for ages 5-18

Individual Differences in Intelligence

• Intelligence is influenced by both hereditary and environmental factors
• Studies show twins and adopted children exhibit intelligence similarities
• Identical twins reared together show high correlation in intelligence, as do those reared apart
• Environmental deprivation lowers intelligence, while enrichment raises it

Assessment of Intelligence

• Binet and Simon: Created the first intelligence test

• Mental Age (MA): Intellectual development relative to age group

• Chronological Age (CA): Biological age from birth

• William Stern: Created the Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

• IQ = (MA/CA) × 100

• Average in population is 100 Distribution of IQ scores approximates a normal curve, symmetrical around the mean

Variations of Intelligence

• Intellectual Disability: Significantly below-average intellectual functioning with deficits in adaptive behavior
• Adaptive behavior: Capacity to be independent and deal effectively with one's environment
• Degree of disability classified as mild, moderate, severe, or profound, they need different degrees of support and care

Intellectual Giftedness

• Individuals display higher performance due to outstanding potential
• Lewis Terman: Studied individuals w/ high IQ's
• Giftedness: Exceptional general ability
• Talent: Remarkable ability in a specific area
• From teachers prospective giftedness means combination of ability, creativity, and commitment

Types of Intelligence Tests

• Individual tests administered one-on-one, require rapport, sensitivity
• Group tests administered to several simultaneously, seek written answers
• Verbal tests require verbal responses, only for literate people
• Non-verbal tests use pictures or illustrations
• Performance tests manipulate objects, easily administered across cultures
• Culture-fair tests: Designed to minimize cultural bias

Culture & Intelligence

• Intelligence adaptation to environment with culture as a context for intelligence development

• Vygotsky argued culture provides a social context

• Technology advanced societies values the skills of reasoning judgement

• Less societies with technology value emotional and social skills

• Western culture promotes "technological intelligence," emphasizing analysis, speed, performance, and achievement

Intelligence in Indian Tradition

• Integral Intelligence connect in a social & world environment
• Indian thinkers- Holistic views include non-cognitive processes
• Buddhi: Represents intelligence includes- metal effort determined actions and feelings

1. Cognitive Capacity- sensitivity understanding Effective communication
2. Social Competence- respect and commitment
3. Emotional- self-monitoring

Emotional Intelligence (EI)

• EI Includes emotions, feelings while building on to intelligence
• Is a Skill underlying; appraisal, expression and regulation of emotions, or emotions.
• Salovey and Mayer says the the ability to measure ones own emotions and others discriminations
• Expressed in EQ

Special Abilities

• Aptitude: Special abilities in a particular field

• Combination of characteristics that indicate you ability to learn and skills after training

• Aptitude tests

• General ability testing

• Psychologists test to find who is diverse and skills.

Creed

• Variations In Psychology like, personality and attitude
• See differences for creativity In potential For a unique way expression.
• Creativity in solving problems by:
  • A. solving with A. novel
  • B. an invention
  • C. or in new form chemical ways
• Einstein's relativity, Creativity is higher and implied bringing out
• Children develop imaging -a) early years activities -b) in non-verbal ways
• Creativity is determined by, environment factor, motivation, family and commitments

Creativity & Intellilgence

• Debate between them, Example by Sunita= high intellectual Vs. Lacking creativity
• High IQ is not necessary for creative
• It's been showed that not one idea of gifted has even followed thru
• Creativity can take many of intellectual people
• And some are highly attributed
• So what are the attribute for creativity,
  • A General, Creativity test Is open- minded which is good.
  • B tests allow a Person to to be thinking of question terms and helping individuals direction -C The imagination way Is express-able in Creativity. tests thinking, the ability express in ideas for which direction to go