Psychology: Eye-Tracking, Ebbinghaus, Behaviorism

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Questions and Answers

What is meant by 'conservative focusing' in hypothesis testing strategies?

Changing only one attribute on each trial to identify non-target attributes (correct)

Considering all attributes simultaneously to find the target

Testing multiple hypotheses at the same time

Changing all attributes at once to test the hypothesis

How does the complexity of a category affect the success rate in hypothesis testing?

Decreases the proportion correct as complexity increases (correct)

Has no effect on the proportion correct

Increases the speed at which participants can find the category

Increases the proportion of correct answers over time

Which scanning strategy allows consideration of all attributes at once?

Focus gambling

Simultaneous scanning (correct)

Conservative focusing

Successive scanning

What is the likelihood of receiving affirmative feedback when using 'focus gambling'?

Very low likelihood of receiving feedback Signup and view all the answers

What impact does typicality have on generalization in category induction tasks?

Generalization is greater for typical category members Signup and view all the answers

Why does a smaller conclusion category size lead to greater generalizability?

It requires less generalization to make valid conclusions Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of 'successive scanning' as a hypothesis testing strategy?

It involves examining one attribute until disconfirmation occurs Signup and view all the answers

In what way does the variability of premise examples affect generalizability?

Greater variability among premises enhances generalizability Signup and view all the answers

What factor is crucial for learning according to the R-W model?

Surprise in the learning process Signup and view all the answers

In the blocking phenomenon, why is little learning associated with the second stimulus?

Due to initial learning focusing on the first stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the highlighting phase of a learning task?

Attention is redirected toward a novel cue due to surprise Signup and view all the answers

Which type of categories tend to be learned more slowly and with higher error rates?

Type 2 categories with higher attentional requirements Signup and view all the answers

What indicates difficulty in category learning based on the number of dimensions?

More dimensions increase the likelihood of errors Signup and view all the answers

How do unidimensional category boundaries compare to diagonal boundaries?

Unidimensional boundaries are easier than diagonal boundaries Signup and view all the answers

What is the result when attention is entirely focused on a well-predicted cue?

Complete neglect of other cues Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of rule plus exception categories in relation to learning difficulty?

They require attention to multiple dimensions Signup and view all the answers

What does Treisman & Geffen's study suggest about unattended stimuli?

They are attenuated but not completely eliminated. Signup and view all the answers

What is a major criticism of early selection theory?

It oversimplifies the filtering mechanism's requirements. Signup and view all the answers

In late selection theory, what stage is the filter located?

After semantic analysis and before consciousness. Signup and view all the answers

How do early selection and late selection theories agree?

Both assert that encoding is necessary for recognition. Signup and view all the answers

What concept is associated with Norman's late selection theory?

A combination of bottom-up and top-down activation. Signup and view all the answers

What technique did McKay (1973) use to support late selection theory?

Indirect methods showcasing semantic processing on unattended channels. Signup and view all the answers

According to late selection theory, what is required for stimuli to achieve conscious awareness?

Successful passage through an additional filtering stage. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'attentional filter' primarily refer to in the context of this content?

The cognitive process distinguishing between relevant and irrelevant stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary characteristic of Balint’s syndrome?

Inability to focus on individual objects Signup and view all the answers

Which pathway is primarily associated with space-based attention?

The ‘where’ pathway Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon does the concept of inhibition of return suggest?

Cued locations become less interesting Signup and view all the answers

What did Tipper's experiments on object-based inhibition of return demonstrate?

Inhibition of return follows the cued object to its new location Signup and view all the answers

In object-based neglect, which deficit is typically observed?

Left visual field deficit for right parietal damage Signup and view all the answers

What was a key finding from Behrmann & Tipper's study with the barbell stimulus?

Neglect can track objects across different locations Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used for the inability to focus on single objects, as seen in Balint’s syndrome?

Simultanagnosia Signup and view all the answers

How does object-based attention differ from space-based attention?

Space-based attention focuses on spatial locations only Signup and view all the answers

What does the model explain about the relationship between complexity and response time?

Complexity is correlated with the number of sub-parts affecting response time. Signup and view all the answers

In the encoding process described, what comes immediately after encoding the rotated image?

Storing the rotated image in working memory. Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary focus of Edward Tolman's research involving rats?

The cognitive map used by rats to orient themselves in a maze. Signup and view all the answers

What did Ebbinghaus calculate to measure the retention of initial learning?

Percent savings. Signup and view all the answers

What general trend did Ebbinghaus find regarding memory retention over time?

Memory retention drops off rapidly initially, then plateaus. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best describes the focus of Behaviorism?

It focuses solely on observable behavior and ignores cognitive processes. Signup and view all the answers

What was a limitation of Behaviorism as highlighted by later research?

It overlooks the use of cognitive maps in learning. Signup and view all the answers

What do the findings from Ebbinghaus' experiments suggest about the nature of memory?

Memory is easily quantifiable. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Eye-Tracking and Response Time

Complexity of an object correlates with the number of its sub-parts; more complex objects require longer response times based on eye-tracking data.
Involves encoding a rotated image, storing it in working memory, and incrementally rotating it toward the target image based on fixation.
The model predicts increase in response time as rotation difference between objects grows.

Ebbinghaus and Memory

Herman Ebbinghaus studied memory retention using nonsense syllables (e.g., DAX).
Found a 'percent savings' measure to evaluate information retention over time; shorter intervals led to higher retention percentages.
Memory decay is rapid within the first two days, then plateaus.

Behaviorism

Focuses on observable behavior rather than internal mental processes.
Skinner's operant conditioning showed that variable reinforcement leads to stronger learning responses.
Edward Tolman's work demonstrated rats form cognitive maps in mazes, challenging strict behaviorist perspectives.

Rule-Learning Studies

Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin explored hypothesis testing in conceptual representation.
Variability in target category attributes affects how hypotheses are tested and learned about categories.

Learning Logical Concepts

Increased category complexity reduces accurate identification of category allocations within a given time frame.

Hypothesis Testing Strategies

Simultaneous Scanning: Evaluates all attributes at once, ensuring no irrelevant attributes are included.
Successive Scanning: Involves checking one attribute at a time; less efficient due to longer durations.
Conservative Focusing: Tests one attribute per trial; feedback informs potential exclusion.
Focus Gambling: Changes all but one attribute for efficient testing, but low probability of receiving affirmative feedback.

Typicality and Generalization

Generalization is more robust for typical category members; depends on conclusion category size and premise variability.

R-W Model and Blocking

First stimulus association strength increases until a limit, while later stimuli show minimal growth due to prior associations.
Surprise is crucial for learning—unexpected cues lead to faster acquisition of associations.

Selective Attention in Learning

Blocking Effect: Attention is directed away from novel cues due to a pre-existing perfect predictor.
Highlighting Effect: Attention shifts to a surprising, previously known cue, strengthening its association with new information.
Demanding attentional requirements make category learning more challenging; higher complexity leads to slower learning and more errors.

Evidence of Early Selection

Early studies involve dual tasks demonstrating that unattended stimuli are not fully blocked, but rather attenuated.
Participants show some awareness of information from the unattended channel, supporting a filter model of attention.

Critiques of Early Selection

Filters require significant knowledge to differentiate stimuli effectively, leading to arguments for late selection theories.

Late Selection Theory

Posits that filtering occurs after semantic analysis and before conscious awareness.
Recognition necessitates both stimulus-driven and conceptually driven selection mechanisms for conscious processing.

Evidence for Late Selection

Studies indicate semantic processing occurs at an unconscious level for unattended stimuli, revealing dual-channel phenomena.

Balint's Syndrome

Characterized by an inability to focus on individual objects due to bilateral lesions in parietal and/or occipital cortex; leads to simultanagnosia and illusionary conjunctions.

Space-Based vs. Object-Based Attention

Attention primarily aligns with the 'where' pathway; neglect is often left-side focused in space-based attention.
Inhibition of return indicates slower reaction times at previously cued locations, attributed to the associated objects.

Object-Based Inhibition of Return

Research shows that inhibition of return follows object cues rather than spatial markers, emphasizing the role of perceptual objects.

Object-Based Neglect

Investigates whether neglect arises from space or object perception; findings indicate neglect is object-based, tracking neglected aspects across spatial transformations.

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Description

Explore key concepts in psychology through this quiz that integrates eye-tracking data, Ebbinghaus's memory studies, and behaviorism principles. Test your understanding of response times related to object complexity and the effects of memory retention. Delve into the behavioral theories of Skinner and Tolman as well.