Psychology Exam on Overconfidence and Attitudes
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Questions and Answers

What is overconfidence primarily characterized by?

  • A tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs (correct)
  • A tendency to be more correct than confident
  • An accurate estimation of chances for success
  • A consistent assessment of one’s skills

How does overconfidence manifest in students?

  • More confident students often do worse on tests after stopping their studies (correct)
  • Less confident students usually perform better academically
  • Confidence has no impact on academic performance
  • More confident students tend to score higher on tests

What can contribute to the persistence of overconfidence?

  • Regular acknowledgment of personal errors
  • Incompetence that feeds back into increased confidence (correct)
  • A solid understanding of one’s limitations
  • Constant learning and adaption to feedback

Why does confidence tend to be higher for future tasks?

<p>People are less likely to imagine failure in the future (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios exemplifies how overconfidence can impact behavior?

<p>A stockbroker invests more heavily despite poor performance (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism through which self-fulfilling prophecies impact personal relationships?

<p>Encouraging reciprocal behavior based on expectations (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes 'behavioral confirmation'?

<p>Expectations that shape behaviors and influence others (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors is NOT essential for attitudes to lead to behavior?

<p>Expressed attitudes must be explicit (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the disconnection between one’s beliefs about morality and their actions?

<p>Moral hypocrisy (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When are attitudes more likely to influence behaviors?

<p>When the expression of attitudes is not influenced by social contexts (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one reason sex education programs may fail to change behaviors regarding abstinence and condom use?

<p>Long-standing habits can override attitudes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Implicit Association Test (IAT) primarily measure?

<p>Reaction times in associating concepts (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a consequence of negative expectations in interpersonal dynamics?

<p>Creating a hostile environment (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic significantly affects the credibility of a communicator?

<p>Perceived expertise (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which effect suggests that information presented first usually has the most influence?

<p>Primacy effect (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the delayed impact of a message that occurs when a previously discounted message becomes effective?

<p>Sleeper effect (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following can enhance the effectiveness of persuasion?

<p>All of the above (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which communication channel typically exerts less influence compared to direct contact?

<p>Television broadcasts (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the expectation that people's attitudes change as they age?

<p>Life cycle explanation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What motivates individuals to think and analyze, impacting their receptiveness to messages?

<p>Need for cognition (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is true regarding written and visual appeals in communication?

<p>They are considered passive. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is altruism primarily motivated by?

<p>A motive to increase another's welfare without regard for self-interest (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which theory suggests that human interactions are motivated by the desire to maximize rewards?

<p>Social-exchange theory (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does guilt influence helping behavior?

<p>It motivates people to alleviate their guilt by helping others (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following norms suggests that people should help those who have helped them?

<p>Reciprocity norm (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What emotional state is most likely to encourage helping behavior?

<p>Happiness (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does kin selection propose regarding altruism?

<p>Altruism toward relatives enhances shared gene survival (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which form of prosocial behavior describes a reciprocal exchange?

<p>Tit-for-tat reciprocal exchange (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of the social-responsibility norm?

<p>It suggests people should help those in need regardless of the relationship (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does self-perception theory suggest about how individuals infer their attitudes?

<p>They observe their behavior and circumstances. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cognitive dissonance occurs due to which of the following situations?

<p>Simultaneous awareness of two inconsistent cognitions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of self-presentation and impression management?

<p>To gain social acceptance and material rewards. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario best exemplifies insufficient justification?

<p>An individual adjusts their attitude after lying for a small payment. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Dissonance is most likely to arise in which situation?

<p>When making a decision between two equally appealing options. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What impact does selective exposure have on cognitive dissonance?

<p>It reduces dissonance by encouraging the consumption of agreeable information. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can an individual reduce cognitive dissonance after making a decision?

<p>By upgrading the features of the chosen option. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary distinction between self-efficacy and self-esteem?

<p>Self-efficacy is about believing you can do something, whereas self-esteem is about overall self-appreciation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes self-handicapping behavior?

<p>Creating excuses for poor performance by setting oneself up for failure. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does 'identity-protective cognition' play in dissonance theory?

<p>It leads to bias when evaluating information that contradicts strong beliefs. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the false consensus effect?

<p>Believing one's opinions and behaviors are more common than they are. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a likely outcome when a person experiences insufficient justification for their actions?

<p>They will alter their attitudes to align with their behavior. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does insufficient justification imply about the relationship between external rewards and internal beliefs?

<p>Low external rewards prompt internal beliefs to shift. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which behavior is likely linked to defensive pessimism?

<p>Anticipating problems to motivate effective coping. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'self-serving bias' refer to?

<p>The inclination to take credit for successes while attributing failures to external factors. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a consequence of high self-efficacy?

<p>Experiencing higher levels of anxiety. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does self-monitoring affect interpersonal relationships?

<p>High self-monitors may struggle to form deep connections due to inconsistency. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key component of impression management?

<p>Expressing oneself in ways meant to create a favorable impression. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is indicative of unrealistic optimism?

<p>Underestimating the likelihood of experiencing adverse events. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the bias blind spot play in self-perception?

<p>It leads individuals to recognize their biases while perceiving others as biased. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which strategy might be used by individuals to manage self-presentation?

<p>Humblebragging, disguising bragging behind complaints. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary psychological function of self-serving attributions?

<p>To boost self-esteem and enhance personal satisfaction. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the self-esteem feedback's impact compared to self-efficacy feedback?

<p>Self-efficacy feedback leads to better performance rather than only feeling good about oneself. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of self-presentation is emphasized in collectivist cultures?

<p>Prioritizing modesty to avoid offending others. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident than accurate, overestimating the reliability of one's beliefs.

System 1 Thinking

Fast, automatic, and intuitive thinking that can be prone to errors because it doesn't analyze information deeply.

Confidence and Timing

Confidence in one's predictions often goes up as the event gets closer, even if the likelihood of success hasn't changed.

Illusory Intuition

A belief or conclusion arrived at without conscious reasoning or a systematic process.

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Overconfidence Bias

When people believe their beliefs are true because they are confident about them, regardless of whether they are actually justified.

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Behavioral Confirmation

A phenomenon where our expectations about someone influence their behavior, ultimately confirming those expectations, creating a self-fulfilling prophecy.

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Moral Hypocrisy

A situation where our actions contradict our beliefs, especially in the context of morality, where greed often wins over moral principles.

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Self-fulfilling Prophecy

The tendency for our expectations about others to influence their behavior, even when those expectations are inaccurate.

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Attitudes

A set of feelings, beliefs, and predispositions that influence our responses to objects, people, and events.

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Disjuncture between Attitude & Action

The difference between what we believe and how we act, often highlighting a conflict between our moral values and our actual behavior.

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Implicit Association Test (IAT)

Measuring how quickly people associate concepts, providing insights into their unconscious biases and attitudes.

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When Attitudes Predict Behavior

The influence of our feelings and beliefs on our actions, especially when those feelings are strong and relevant to the situation.

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Implicit Attitudes

A measure of unconscious attitudes by minimizing the influence of social pressure and conscious biases.

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Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to perceive oneself favorably, attributing success to internal factors (ability, effort) and failures to external factors (bad luck, circumstances).

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Self-Serving Attributions

A form of self-serving bias where we attribute positive outcomes to ourselves and negative outcomes to other factors. It's one of the most powerful biases.

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False Consensus Effect

A tendency to overestimate the commonality of one's opinions and undesirable behaviors.

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False Uniqueness Effect

A tendency to underestimate how common our desirable traits and successful behaviors are.

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Unrealistic Optimism

A belief that we are less likely to experience negative events compared to others. Often fueled by an 'illusionary optimism' where we believe we are immune to misfortune.

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Defensive Pessimism

The adaptive value of anticipating problems and harnessing anxiety to motivate action. Can lead to better preparation and performance.

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Self-Efficacy

The belief in one's competence and effectiveness. It influences performance and goal-setting.

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Self-Esteem

Liking yourself overall, based on your self-worth and self-image.

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Self-Handicapping

Protective behaviors that create excuses for potential failure, like procrastinating or reducing preparation, to protect self-esteem.

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Self-Presentation

The act of behaving in ways designed to create a favorable impression, both to external audiences and internally.

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Humblebrag

A self-presentation strategy where people subtly brag under the guise of complaints or humility.

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Self-Monitoring

Being attuned to how one presents oneself in social situations and adjusting behavior to create a desired impression.

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Self-Serving Bias Occurs

A cognitive process where we compare ourselves to others, leading to opportunities for biases and errors in information processing due to our desire for self-esteem maintenance.

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Bias Blind Spot

A state where we mistakenly believe we see ourselves objectively but perceive others as biased.

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Self-Serving Bias: Internalizing Success, Externalizing Failure

The tendency to attribute success to our ability and effort, and failures to external factors. This helps maintain self-esteem.

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Self-Serving Bias: Stronger for Subjective Traits

Self-serving bias is more likely to occur when evaluating subjective or difficult-to-measure traits, as we have more leeway in defining success.

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Credibility

The ability of the communicator to be trusted and believable, based on their expertise and trustworthiness.

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Sleeper Effect

A phenomenon where a message initially discounted becomes more persuasive later on, often because we remember the message but forget the reason for our initial skepticism.

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Channel of Communication

The way a message is delivered, impacting its persuasiveness. Active experiences are more effective than passive ones.

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Primacy Effect

The effect of information presented first having more influence than information presented later, all other things being equal.

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Recency Effect

The effect of information presented last having more influence than information presented earlier in some cases.

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Opinion Leaders

Influential people who spread information and opinions to others, often affecting public perception.

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Need for Cognition

The motivation to think deeply and analyze information, playing a key role in how persuasive a message is.

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Life Cycle Explanation

Explains how attitudes may change as people grow older, suggesting different life stages influence how we think.

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Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger)

The state of psychological tension that occurs when a person holds two or more conflicting beliefs, ideas, or values.

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Selective Exposure

The tendency to focus on information that confirms pre-existing beliefs, while ignoring or dismissing contradictory evidence.

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Self-Perception Theory

When people are uncertain about their attitudes or feelings, they look at their behavior and the situation surrounding it to infer what they must believe or feel.

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Insufficient Justification

A state of psychological tension that arises from the discrepancy between our actions and attitudes, especially when there is insufficient justification for the behavior.

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Dissonance After Decisions

The tendency to reduce dissonance by upgrading the chosen option and downgrading the rejected option after a decision.

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Self-Presentation: Impression Management

The process of managing one's behavior to create a desired impression in the eyes of others. It is about controlling what others think of us.

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Appearing Consistent

The automatic tendency to pretend to agree with the attitudes that match our actions, even if we don't actually hold those attitudes.

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Maintaining Consistency

The motive to maintain consistency between one's thoughts and feelings. It causes tension when there is a conflict between these.

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Insufficient Incentive

The idea that encouragement and rewards should be just enough to get someone to do something. Too much incentive can reduce the internal justification and make the behavior less likely to change attitudes.

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Attitude-Follow-Behavior Effect

The tendency for people to experience dissonance through their actions, leading them to change their beliefs or attitudes, especially when they feel a sense of choice and foresee consequences.

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Altruism

Helping others without expecting anything in return, motivated solely by the desire to increase their well-being.

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Social Exchange Theory

The theory that our social interactions are like transactions, aiming to maximize benefits and minimize costs for ourselves.

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Do-Good/Feel-Good Effect

Feeling good after helping someone, boosting self-worth and positive emotions.

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Reciprocity Norm

An expectation that people will reciprocate help, supporting those who have helped them.

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Social-Responsibility Norm

An expectation that people should help those in need, regardless of past favors or future benefits.

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Kin Selection

Evolutionary theory proposing that altruism toward relatives is favored because it enhances the survival of shared genes.

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Tit-for-Tat Reciprocal Exchange

Prosocial behavior motivated by the hope of receiving something in return, like future reciprocity.

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Unconditional Helpfulness

Prosocial behavior driven by genuine concern and a desire to help others, without expecting any personal gain.

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Description

This quiz covers concepts related to overconfidence, its impact on students, and the psychological mechanisms behind self-fulfilling prophecies. Additionally, it explores the connections between attitudes, behaviors, and their influences in interpersonal dynamics. Test your understanding of these important psychological principles!

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