Psychology Definitions and Concepts
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Questions and Answers

What determines the amount of space devoted to representing a particular body part in the primary somatosensory and motor cortices?

  • The importance of the body part for sensory detection and motor function. (correct)
  • The size of the body part in proportion to the brain's overall mass.
  • The duration of use of that body part throughout a person's life.
  • The genetic predisposition of a person and their family history.

How do the two brain hemispheres communicate with each other?

  • By exchanging electrical signals through the brain's surface.
  • By sending neurotransmitters across the cerebral spinal fluid.
  • Via independent functioning with no direct connection.
  • Through the corpus callosum and several other commissures. (correct)

What is an example of lateralization of function in the brain?

  • Processing of visual inputs in the right hemisphere.
  • Motor control for the right hand primarily managed by the left hemisphere. (correct)
  • Regulation of heart rate by the left hemisphere.
  • Language processing predominantly in Broca's area located in the right hemisphere.

What distinguishes primary cortex from association cortex?

<p>Primary cortex handles basic sensory and motor functions while association cortex integrates and interprets that information. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is phantom limb syndrome an example of?

<p>The phenomenon of perception without sensory input. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the limitations of relying solely on personal experience and intuition to understand human psychology?

<p>They can lead to common cognitive biases and inaccuracies. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes folk psychology theories from scientific approaches in psychology?

<p>Folk psychology relies on casual observations, while scientific approaches demand rigorous testing. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines a replication study in psychology?

<p>A study that aims to confirm the findings of previous research through repeated testing. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does it mean for psychology to be considered a 'summative' science?

<p>It embodies multiple perspectives that integrate findings from various subfields of psychology. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best explains confirmation bias?

<p>The bias to only seek information that supports one's preexisting beliefs. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do subtle contextual factors influence behavior without our awareness?

<p>They can create implicit cues that shape our responses unconsciously. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the open science movement in psychology?

<p>To enhance transparency and accessibility of research practices and findings. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of descriptive research in psychology?

<p>It aims to provide a detailed account of behaviors and attitudes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the three criteria that must be met to establish causation?

<p>Correlation, temporal precedence, and the elimination of alternative explanations (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of a control group in an experiment?

<p>To provide a baseline for comparison (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does external validity refer to in research?

<p>The applicability of findings beyond the study context (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes a mediator variable?

<p>A variable that comes between an independent and a dependent variable in a causal chain (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of an Institutional Review Board (IRB)?

<p>To evaluate the ethical implications of research proposals (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a confound in the context of an experiment?

<p>An external variable that affects both the independent and dependent variables (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does a double-blind procedure aid in experimental research?

<p>It prevents any form of bias from both participants and researchers (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines a dominant allele?

<p>An allele that masks the effects of a recessive allele (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the concept of gene expression?

<p>The activation of a gene to produce RNA and proteins (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following neurons transmits impulses away from the central nervous system?

<p>Motor neurons (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of neurotransmitters in neuronal communication?

<p>They facilitate the transmission of signals across the synaptic cleft (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary function of the pituitary gland?

<p>Secretes hormones that control other endocrine glands (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of selection is characterized by human intervention to breed certain traits?

<p>Artificial selection (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a spinal reflex?

<p>An automatic response that does not require brain activity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does contralateral organization refer to in the context of brain function?

<p>The left hemisphere processes information from the right side of the body and vice versa. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes Broca's area from Wernicke's area in the brain?

<p>Broca's area is involved in the formulation of speech, while Wernicke's area is crucial for understanding language. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes neural plasticity?

<p>Neural plasticity refers to the brain's ability to change and adapt in response to experience. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines a critical period in brain development?

<p>A specific time frame during which certain experiences must occur for normal development. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do split-brain experiments contribute to the understanding of lateralization of function?

<p>They show that each hemisphere specializes in handling different cognitive tasks. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What differentiates folk psychology from scientific psychology?

<p>Folk psychology is based on anecdotal evidence, while scientific psychology relies on empirical research. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the phenomenon where an individual misinterprets the source of their emotional arousal?

<p>Misattribution of arousal (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary advantage of using replication studies in psychological research?

<p>They ensure that findings are not due to random chance. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best characterizes social cognition?

<p>The study of how people perceive and think about others. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of meta-analysis in psychological research?

<p>To combine and analyze data from multiple studies. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the open science movement primarily advocate for?

<p>Increasing transparency and accessibility of scientific research. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best explains the term 'operational definition' in psychological research?

<p>A way to define theoretical concepts in concrete terms. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of distinguishing between measured and manipulated variables in research?

<p>To clarify the relationships between variables in a study. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes an independent variable from a dependent variable in an experiment?

<p>The independent variable is manipulated and the dependent variable is measured. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes a control group in an experiment?

<p>A group that does not receive the treatment and serves as a benchmark. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main reason experiments are preferred for establishing causation over correlational designs?

<p>Experiments can manipulate variables and control extraneous factors. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does random assignment accomplish in experimental research?

<p>Protects against selection biases in assigning participants to different groups. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes a double-blind procedure in experimental research?

<p>Both the participants and the experimenters do not know who is in the experimental group. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of heritability estimates in behavioral genetics?

<p>To quantify the degree to which genetics contribute to individual differences in traits. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the role of the placebo effect in psychological experiments?

<p>The placebo effect indicates that participants may experience real changes based on their expectations. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes epigenetic changes?

<p>Reversible modifications that affect gene expression without altering DNA. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of external validity refer to in research?

<p>The extent to which findings can be applied to real-world settings outside of the study. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do genome-wide association studies aim to identify?

<p>Genetic variants associated with particular traits or diseases across the genome. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the diathesis-stress model in psychology?

<p>It combines predispositional vulnerability and environmental stress to explain behavior and disorder onset. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with mood regulation and is commonly targeted by antidepressant medications?

<p>Serotonin (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes a hypothesis from a theory?

<p>A hypothesis is a tentative explanation that can be tested, while a theory is a well-substantiated explanation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the open science movement seek to achieve?

<p>To promote transparency and accessibility in scientific research. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines misattribution of arousal?

<p>The phenomenon where individuals confuse their physiological arousal with emotional states. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do subtle contextual factors play in influencing behavior?

<p>They can drive behavior without conscious awareness. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes variable types in psychological research?

<p>Measured variables are observational, while manipulated variables are experimental. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does confirmation bias refer to in the context of belief perseverance?

<p>A consistent interpretation of evidence that aligns with existing beliefs. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of a replication study in psychology?

<p>To confirm or refute previous research findings. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What kind of research design is characterized by collecting extensive information on a single subject or group?

<p>Case study (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does lateralization in the brain refer to?

<p>The specialization of certain functions in one hemisphere over the other. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can phantom limb syndrome be best described?

<p>The sensation of pain originating from a non-existent limb. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes Broca’s area from Wernicke’s area?

<p>Broca’s area is associated with the motor functions of speech, while Wernicke’s area pertains to the comprehension of language. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of critical periods in brain development?

<p>They identify times when the brain is most flexible to new learning. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do experiments with split-brain patients help illustrate about lateralization?

<p>The distinct roles of the left and right hemispheres in processing different types of information. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main reason why measuring reliability is important in research?

<p>It ensures that results can be replicated across different studies. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines a mediator variable?

<p>A variable that explains the relationship between two other variables. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term internal validity refer to in research?

<p>The degree to which a study accurately tests its hypothesis. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do dual-process theories explain decision-making?

<p>They differentiate between fast, intuitive judgments and slower, deliberate reasoning. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the placebo effect illustrate about human psychology?

<p>That psychological factors can have a real impact on physical health. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of a control group in experimental research?

<p>To help assess the impact of the independent variable. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What differentiates a genotype from a phenotype?

<p>Genotype refers to the genetic makeup, while phenotype includes both genetic and environmental influences. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are genome-wide association studies primarily used for?

<p>To identify genetic variants associated with specific diseases. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of behavioral genetics?

<p>To explore the heritability of traits and disorders. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does differential attrition refer to in research?

<p>The loss of participants from different groups at different rates. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of excitatory signals in the nervous system?

<p>They increase the likelihood of a neuron firing. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is the concept of heritability commonly interpreted in behavioral genetics?

<p>As the proportion of variance in a trait accounted for by genetic factors. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is epigenetic change?

<p>Influences of environmental factors on gene expression. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does topographical organization in the primary somatosensory and motor cortices refer to?

<p>The mapping of body parts in a specific spatial configuration (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the difference between primary cortex and association cortex?

<p>Primary cortex processes basic sensory information while association cortex integrates complex information (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is neural plasticity?

<p>The process by which the brain's neural connections change based on learning and experience (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does contralateral organization indicate in terms of brain function?

<p>Each hemisphere regulates the opposite side of the body (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can split-brain patients contribute to our understanding of lateralization of function?

<p>Their behaviors reveal the specific roles that each hemisphere plays in cognitive tasks (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does misattribution of arousal refer to?

<p>Misinterpreting emotions based on environmental cues (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant disadvantage of self-report measures?

<p>Participants may provide socially desirable responses (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes folk psychology from scientific psychology?

<p>Folk psychology is based on collected personal experiences and beliefs (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term refers to the systematic organization and integration of existing research outcomes in psychology?

<p>Meta-analysis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines social cognition?

<p>The study of how people think about themselves and others in social contexts (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary purpose of a case study in psychological research?

<p>To provide a detailed, qualitative analysis of an individual or group (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of confirmation bias?

<p>The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one's pre-existing beliefs (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of random assignment in experimental research?

<p>It helps to eliminate selection bias by evenly distributing confounding variables. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the role of a control group in an experiment?

<p>It serves as a baseline for comparison against the experimental group. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do genome-wide association studies primarily investigate?

<p>The associations between specific genetic variants and traits or diseases. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is most commonly associated with the placebo effect in research?

<p>The expectations of participants regarding treatment outcomes. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key feature of double-blind procedures in experimental research?

<p>Both participants and researchers are unaware of group assignments. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best defines internal validity?

<p>It measures how well the study design controls for confounding variables. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes a mediator variable from a moderator variable?

<p>A mediator variable provides a pathway for the effect, while a moderator affects the direction or strength. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does heritability specifically measure in behavioral genetics?

<p>The degree of genetic variation in a population that contributes to differences in a trait. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best characterizes differential attrition in research studies?

<p>It refers to unequal dropout rates among different groups in a study. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of genetics, what does epigenetic change refer to?

<p>Changes in gene expression caused by environmental factors without altering the DNA sequence. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by the term 'adaptation' in the context of evolutionary psychology?

<p>A trait that enhances reproductive success and thus becomes more common in the population. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the interaction between genes and environment in behavioral outcomes?

<p>Environmental factors can enhance or inhibit the expression of genetic traits. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a high effect size indicate in the context of research findings?

<p>The practical importance or magnitude of the relationship between variables. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do candidate gene studies typically approach the analysis of behavior?

<p>By investigating specific genes thought to influence traits. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by contralateral organization in the context of brain function?

<p>Each hemisphere of the brain receives input from the opposite side of the body. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does Broca's area have in the brain?

<p>It is responsible for speech production and language processing. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do the two hemispheres of the brain communicate?

<p>Through the corpus callosum, which is a band of neural fibers. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of lateralization in brain function?

<p>It suggests that certain cognitive processes are more dominant in one hemisphere than the other. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the limitations of relying solely on folk psychology for understanding human behavior?

<p>Folk psychology lacks empirical evidence and scientific rigor. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of confirmation bias affect belief perseverance?

<p>It encourages individuals to reject new evidence. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes a measured variable from a manipulated variable in psychological research?

<p>Measured variables are observed and recorded, while manipulated variables are changed by the researcher. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does it mean for a psychological study to be peer-reviewed?

<p>The study undergoes evaluation by experts in the field to ensure quality and credibility. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do indirect measures play in psychological research?

<p>They assess concepts that are difficult to measure directly. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the purpose of a case study in psychology?

<p>To gather detailed information about a single subject or small group. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines misattribution of arousal in psychological contexts?

<p>The misinterpretation of the source of physiological arousal. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary goal of the open science movement in psychology?

<p>To increase transparency and accessibility of research methods and findings. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately describes a mediator variable in research?

<p>A variable that is influenced by the independent variable and influences the dependent variable (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of a control group in an experiment?

<p>To provide a baseline for comparison with the experimental group (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of random assignment in experimental research?

<p>To create equal groups that control for participant characteristics (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the placebo effect in psychological experiments?

<p>An improvement in symptoms due to expectation rather than treatment (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the Institutional Review Board (IRB) in research?

<p>To protect the rights and welfare of research participants (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes the difference between internal validity and external validity?

<p>Internal validity focuses on whether the results are due to the manipulation of the independent variable, while external validity assesses the generalizability of the findings (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the meaning of epigenetic change in the context of genetics?

<p>Alterations in gene expression caused by environmental factors, without changing the DNA sequence (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind genome-wide association studies?

<p>To identify genetic variations associated with specific traits or diseases (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines the diathesis-stress model in psychology?

<p>It posits that mental disorders result from the interaction of predisposition and environmental stressors (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does differential attrition pose a problem in experimental studies?

<p>It can create bias if certain types of participants drop out at different rates (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term best describes the concept of heritability in behavioral genetics?

<p>It measures how much of a trait is attributable to genetics in a population (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What accurately describes a knockdown or knockout of a gene in genetics?

<p>The alteration of a gene to create a variant with no expressed function (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'functionalism' refer to in psychological theory?

<p>The view that mental states have evolved to serve specific purposes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by misattribution of arousal?

<p>Incorrectly identifying the source of emotional feelings (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the aim of a replication study?

<p>To verify that the results of a previous study can be consistently achieved (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the open science movement aim to change psychological research practices?

<p>By advocating for transparency and accessibility of research data (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does it mean for psychology to be a 'summative' science?

<p>It integrates knowledge from various subfields to form a comprehensive understanding (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is implied by the term 'confirmation bias'?

<p>The inclination to disregard evidence that supports preconceived notions (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by social cognition in psychology?

<p>The way in which individuals perceive, think about, and interact with others (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes meta-analysis in psychological research?

<p>Combining data from multiple studies to draw broader conclusions (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes operational definitions?

<p>They provide specific criteria for measuring variables (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by lateralization in the brain?

<p>The specialization of certain functions in one hemisphere, such as language. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Broca’s area primarily responsible for?

<p>Producing speech and language articulation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do split-brain experiments contribute to our understanding of brain function?

<p>They reveal that each hemisphere can perform functions independently of the other. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of a control group in an experiment?

<p>To provide a baseline for comparison with the experimental group (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines the internal validity of a research study?

<p>The ability to establish a cause-and-effect relationship (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes a dominant allele from a recessive allele?

<p>A dominant allele expresses its trait regardless of the allele it is paired with (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines external validity?

<p>The ability to generalize findings to other settings or populations (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of an Institutional Review Board (IRB)?

<p>To ensure ethical standards in research involving human participants (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which situation best exemplifies the placebo effect?

<p>A participant reporting symptom relief after receiving a sugar pill (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a genome-wide association study aim to achieve?

<p>To examine the entire genome's impact on certain traits (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is critical in ensuring the reliability of a measurement?

<p>The consistency of the test results over time (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the principle behind double-blind procedures in experiments?

<p>Neither participants nor researchers know the group assignments (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What concept refers to the existence of different effects of a variable depending on the context?

<p>Moderator variable (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements describes behavior genetics?

<p>The examination of genetic influences on behavior traits (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In research, how is a confound typically defined?

<p>As an uncontrolled variable that could affect the outcome (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Psychology Definition

The scientific study of the mind and behavior.

Scientific Method - Theory

A well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment.

Replication Study

A study that attempts to duplicate the findings of a prior study using different participants and/or situations.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.

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Variable

Any factor that can vary or change. It can be measured or manipulated.

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Operational Definition

A precise description of a variable in terms of how it is measured or manipulated in a study.

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Correlation Research

Research that explores the relationship between variables without manipulating them. It only measures them.

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Random Sample

A sample where every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

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Topographic Organization

The arrangement of neurons in the primary somatosensory and motor cortices that reflects the spatial organization of the body. The more sensitive a body part, the more space it occupies in the cortex.

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Contralateral Organization

The control of one side of the body by the opposite hemisphere of the brain. For example, the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body.

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Lateralization

The specialization of functions in the two hemispheres of the brain. For example, language abilities are typically located in the left hemisphere.

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What is Broca's area?

A brain region located in the left frontal lobe, primarily responsible for speech production. It is also involved in language processing, comprehension, and grammar.

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What is Wernicke's area?

A brain region located in the left temporal lobe, responsible for language comprehension and processing. It helps us understand spoken and written language.

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Causation

A cause-and-effect relationship where one event directly leads to another.

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Correlation

A statistical relationship between two variables, where they change together, but it doesn't necessarily mean one causes the other.

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Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated or changed by the researcher to see its effect.

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Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured and expected to change in response to the independent variable.

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Random Assignment

Assigning participants to different groups (treatment or control) randomly, ensuring each participant has an equal chance of being in any group.

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Control Group

A group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or manipulation, used as a baseline for comparison.

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Mediator Variable

A variable that explains the relationship between two other variables.

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Moderator Variable

A variable that changes the strength or direction of the relationship between two other variables.

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Measurement Validity

The extent to which a measurement accurately reflects the variable it's intended to measure.

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Measurement Reliability

The consistency or stability of a measurement over time.

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Confound

An extraneous variable that is not controlled by the researcher and could influence the results of the study.

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Placebo Effect

A change in behavior or experience that occurs due to the expectation of an effect, rather than the actual treatment.

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Double-Blind Procedure

A procedure where neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving the treatment or placebo.

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Folk Psychology Theories

Informal, everyday explanations we use to understand people's behavior based on common sense and personal experiences. They are often based on assumptions and stereotypes rather than scientific evidence.

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Limitations of Personal Experience

Our own experiences can be misleading about human psychology because they are limited and often biased.

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Inattentional Blindness

The failure to notice a visually prominent object because we are focused on something else.

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Confirmation Bias

The tendency to favor information that confirms our existing beliefs and ignore or downplay information that contradicts them.

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Misattribution of Arousal

When we mistakenly attribute our physical arousal to the wrong source.

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Psychology as a Summative Science

Psychology builds upon previous research, meaning that new findings often combine and integrate existing knowledge, leading to a stronger understanding of human behaviour.

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Areas of Psychology

Different areas of psychology focus on various aspects of human behavior, using different perspectives.

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Split-brain Patients

Individuals who have had their corpus callosum severed, preventing communication between their hemispheres. This allows researchers to study lateralization effects.

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Broca's Area vs. Wernicke's Area

Broca's area is involved in speech production, while Wernicke's area is responsible for language comprehension. Damage to either area can result in specific language impairments.

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Correlation vs. Causation

Just because two things are related doesn't mean one causes the other. Correlation describes a relationship, but not necessarily cause and effect.

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Three Criteria for Causation

To establish causation, you need: 1) Correlation - variables change together, 2) Temporal Precedence - the cause happens before the effect, 3) Ruling Out Alternatives - no other factors could explain the effect.

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Experiments and Causation

Experiments can establish causation by manipulating an independent variable and observing its effect on a dependent variable. This allows for controlling other factors that might influence the outcome.

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Moderator vs. Mediator

A moderator influences the strength of the relationship between two variables, while a mediator explains the relationship between two variables.

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Validity of a Study

Validity tells us how accurate and meaningful the results of a study are.

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Social Cognition

The mental processes we use to understand and interact with other people, including how we perceive, interpret, and remember social information.

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Summative Science

A scientific field that builds upon previous research, integrating new findings with existing knowledge to create a more complete understanding.

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Critical Thinking

The process of evaluating claims and information systematically, considering evidence, logic, and potential biases.

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Phantom Limb Syndrome

The sensation of feeling a missing limb after amputation. It's an example of neural plasticity, where the brain reorganizes itself in response to changes in sensory input.

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Folk Psychology

Informal, everyday explanations of behavior based on personal experiences and common sense, often relying on assumptions and stereotypes.

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Scientific Approach to Psychology

Using systematic methods, empirical evidence, and rigorous testing to understand behavior, unlike folk psychology which relies on intuition.

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What determines the amount of space for a body part?

The amount of space allotted to a specific body part in the somatosensory and motor cortices is determined by its sensitivity and the complexity of its movements.

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What determines body part space?

The amount of space devoted to a body part in the somatosensory and motor cortices is determined by its sensitivity and the complexity of its movements.

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Primary vs. Association Cortex

Primary cortex directly receives sensory input or controls movement. Association cortex processes information from various primary areas, creating complex perceptions and plans.

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Open Science Movement

A movement to make scientific research more transparent, accessible, and collaborative.

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What is a confound?

An extraneous variable that is not controlled by the researcher and could influence the results of the study.

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What are the three guiding principles for conducting research with non-human animal subjects?

The three guiding principles are: 1) Replacement - researchers should look for alternatives to using animals whenever possible. 2) Reduction - researchers should use the fewest number of animals possible to get meaningful results. 3) Refinement - researchers should design studies to minimize pain and suffering for animals.

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What is Psychology?

The scientific study of the mind and behavior. It seeks to understand how people think, feel, and act.

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What is Social Cognition?

The mental processes we use to understand and interact with other people. It involves how we perceive, interpret, and remember social information.

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What are Folk Psychology Theories?

Everyday explanations of behavior based on common sense and personal experiences, often using assumptions and stereotypes. These theories are not based on scientific evidence.

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What is a Replication Study?

A study that attempts to duplicate the findings of a prior study using different participants and/or situations. It helps verify the reliability and generalizability of original findings.

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What is the Open Science Movement?

An initiative to make scientific research more transparent, accessible, and collaborative. It aims to promote open access to data, methods, and findings, allowing for greater scrutiny and collaboration within the scientific community.

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What is a Meta-analysis?

A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies on the same topic to produce a more comprehensive and reliable conclusion.

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What does it mean for a paper to be Peer-Reviewed?

Before publication, a paper is reviewed by experts in the field who assess the quality of the research, methods, and findings. This process helps ensure the validity and rigor of published research.

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What determines body part representation?

The amount of space a body part occupies in the somatosensory and motor cortices is determined by its sensitivity and the complexity of its movements.

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Gene vs. Allele

A gene is a segment of DNA that provides instructions for building a protein. An allele is a specific version of a gene, like different eye color variations.

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Genotype vs. Phenotype

Genotype refers to the genetic makeup of an individual, the specific alleles they have. Phenotype is the observable characteristics of an individual, influenced by both genotype and environment.

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Homozygous vs. Heterozygous Genotype

Homozygous means having two identical alleles for a gene (e.g., both blue eyes). Heterozygous means having two different alleles for a gene (e.g., one blue eye allele, one brown eye allele).

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Heritability

A measure of how much variation in a trait within a population can be attributed to genetic factors. It doesn't mean a trait is 100% determined by genes.

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Twin Studies and Heritability

Twin studies compare identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins to estimate the heritability of traits. Identical twins share 100% of genes, fraternal twins share 50%.

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Study Notes

Psychology Definitions

  • Psychology: The scientific study of the mind and behavior.
  • Mind: The internal world of thoughts, feelings, and sensations.
  • Behavior: Observable actions and reactions.
  • Social Cognition: The study of how we think about and interact with other people.

Folk Psychology

  • Folk Psychology Theories: Common-sense explanations of behavior, often based on intuition and personal experience.
  • Origins: Developed from everyday interactions and observations.
  • Differences from Scientific Psychology: Folk psychology relies on subjective interpretation whereas scientific psychology uses rigorous methodologies (experiments, data analysis).

Limitations of Personal Experience and Intuition

  • Inattentional Blindness: Failure to notice something obvious because attention is directed elsewhere.
  • Illusion of Attention: A feeling of focus that doesn't correspond to the reality of what is being noticed.
  • Confirmation Bias: The tendency to seek out and interpret information that confirms existing beliefs.
  • Belief Perseverance: Staying committed to a belief even when confronted with evidence that challenges it.
  • Contextual Factors: Subtle environmental or social cues that can influence behavior unconsciously. (e.g., social norms, cultural expectations)

Misattribution of Arousal

  • Misattribution of Arousal: Attributing feelings of physiological arousal to the wrong source (e.g., mistaking anxiety for romantic attraction).

Replication Studies

  • Replication Study: Repeating a study to confirm original findings.
  • Importance: Ensures reliability and validity of results.

Psychology as a Summative Science

  • Psychology: Integrates multiple perspectives from various areas to provide a complete picture.

Areas of Psychology

  • Biological/Neuroscience: Focuses on the biological underpinnings of behavior.
  • Evolutionary: Explores how evolution influences behavior.
  • Cultural: Examines the impact of culture on behavior.
  • Social: Analyzes how social interactions influence individuals.
  • Clinical: Addresses mental health and psychological disorders.
  • Etc.

Critical Thinking in Psychology

  • Critical Evaluation: Analyzing claims with a skeptical mindset to assess validity and potential bias.

Effective Studying Strategies

  • Research-based strategies: vary depending on the person's need but include active recall, spaced repetition etc

Scientific Method

  • Theory: A broad explanation or prediction about some phenomenon.
  • Hypothesis: A testable prediction derived from a theory.
  • Data: Observations or measurements collected to investigate a hypothesis.
  • Distinction: A theory provides a larger framework while a hypothesis is a specific prediction derived from that theory.

Replication Studies (repeated)

  • Replication Study: Repeating a study to confirm original findings.
  • Importance: Ensures reliability and validity of results.

Open Science Movement

  • Open Science: A movement promoting transparency and reproducibility in research.
  • Ultimate Goal: To improve the integrity and impact of scientific research.

Meta-Analysis

  • Meta-Analysis: Statistical analysis of multiple study results to determine overall effect size.

Peer-Reviewed Papers

  • Peer Review: A process where experts critique research before publication to gauge quality.

Variables

  • Variable: A factor that can vary.
  • Measured: Observed and recorded as is.
  • Manipulated: Controlled and altered by the researcher.

Operational Definition

  • Operational Definition: A clear, concise description of how a variable will be measured or manipulated.

Self-Report Measures

  • Self-Report Measure: A method relying on participant responses (e.g., questionnaires, interviews).
  • Advantages: Relatively easy and cheap to collect data, participant's subjective experience.
  • Disadvantages: Potential for social desirability bias and self-deception.
  • Social Desirability Bias: The tendency to present a favourable image of oneself.

Behavioral Observation

  • Behavioral Observation: Actively watching and documenting behavior.
  • Advantages: Direct, real-time assessment of behavior in a natural setting.
  • Disadvantages: Reactivity and potential observer bias.
  • Reactivity: Changes in behavior due to awareness of being observed.

Indirect Measures

  • Indirect Measures: Methods of assessing variables other than direct observation or participant self-report.
  • Example: Behavioral indicators like stress or personality traits. (e.g., physiological measurements, physiological responses to mental tasks)
  • Advantages: Avoids reactivity and social desirability bias.
  • Disadvantages: Difficult or expensive to collect, complex analysis, and may be misinterpreted.

Population & Sample

  • Population of Interest: The entire group of individuals, events or attributes the researcher wants to learn about.
  • Sample: A subset selected from the population of interest.
  • Random Sample: Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
  • Importance of Random Sampling: Minimizes bias; allows the sample to accurately represent the population.
  • Misleading Nonrandom Samples: If the selection method is not random, the sample may not reflect the entire population.

Research Designs

  • Descriptive Research: Observational; describes characteristics of a population or phenomenon.
  • Case Study: Detailed account of a single individual, group, or event.
  • Correlational Research: Examines the relationship between two or more variables.
  • Interpreting Scatterplots: Visual representation of the strength and direction of a relationship. (e.g., positive, negative, or no correlation)
  • Interpreting Correlation Coefficients: Numerical representation reflecting the strength and direction of a relationship (-1 to +1).
  • Correlation Doesn't Prove Causation: A relationship between variables doesn't imply one causes the other.
  • Causation Criteria: a relationship exists, the cause comes before the effect and no other variable can account for the effects.

Experimental Design

  • Experiment: A research method where an independent variable affects a dependent variable.
  • Independent Variable: Manipulated factor.
  • Dependent Variable: Measured factor; the outcome.
  • Random Assignment: Ensuring each participant has an equal chance of being in any experimental group.
  • Control Group: A baseline group that doesn't receive the treatment, used for comparison.
  • Mediator: Explaining the how of the relationship between two variables.
  • Moderator: explaining the when of the relationship between two variables.
  • Validity: Accuracy of the measurement.
    • Measurement Validity: Accuracy of measurement tools.
    • Reliability: Consistency of measurements.
    • Internal Validity: The ability to draw causal inferences.
  • Threats to Internal Validity: Confounding variables, differential attrition.
  • Confound: An uncontrolled factor influencing the dependent variable.
  • Placebo Effect: An effect resulting from the mere belief of treatment.
  • Double-Blind Procedure: Neither participants nor researchers know who received the treatment; minimizes biases.
  • External Validity: The extent to which findings generalize to other populations and contexts.
  • Effect Size: Magnitude of the relationship between variables.
  • Null Hypothesis Testing: Statistical methods used to determine likelihood of results occurring by chance.
  • p-value: Probability of observing results as extreme or more extreme if the null hypothesis is true.
    • Factors Affecting p-value: Sample size, effect size, variation.

Descriptive Statistics

  • Descriptive Statistics: Summarizes and describes data, including frequency distributions and measures of central tendency and variability.
  • Frequency Distribution: Distribution of data points across ranges.
  • Mean: Average score.
  • Median: Middle score.
  • Mode: Most frequent score.
  • Standard Deviation: Measure of variability from the mean.

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

  • IRBs: Protect human participants and animal subjects in research.

Ethical Principles Guiding Research (IRBs)

  • Ethical Principles: Respect for persons, beneficence, justice.
  • Possible Violations: Lack of informed consent, deception; coercion.
  • Informed Consent: Participants' voluntary agreement to participate.
  • Deception: Misleading participants; minimizes harm and debrief.

Research with Animal Subjects

  • Ethical Principles: Humane care, minimizing stress and suffering; use alternative methods if possible.

Genetics & Evolutionary Foundations of Behavior

  • Genome: Complete set of genetic material in an organism.
  • DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid; molecule that contains genetic instructions.
  • Chromosome: Structure of DNA.
  • Gene: Unit of heredity.
  • Allele: Different forms of a gene.
  • Dominant/Recessive Allele: Dominant masks recessive trait.
  • Genotype: Genetic makeup.
  • Phenotype: Observable traits.
  • Homozygous/Heterozygous: Homozygous has matching alleles, heterozygous has differing alleles.
  • Candidate Gene Studies: Identifying specific genes linked to traits/behaviors.
  • Limitations: Correlation, not causation; genetic complexity/environment interplay.
  • Knocking Down/Out: Reducing/Eliminating gene function.
  • Genome-wide Association Studies: Scanning genome for variations associated with traits.
  • Limitations: Correlation; genetic complexity/environment interplay.
  • Diathesis-Stress Model: Vulnerability + stress = disorder; predisposition.
  • Differential Susceptibility: Certain genes increasing individual responsiveness to environmental factors.
  • Gene Expression: Gene activity varies.
  • Epigenetic Changes: Environment modifications alter gene function without changing DNA sequence.
  • Examples: Maternal care, stress, and its effects on rats.
  • Behavioral Genetics: Study of genetic contributions to behavior.
  • Heritability: Proportion of variation in a trait attributable to genes.
  • Interpreting Heritability: Percentage ranges; doesn't imply genetic determinism.
  • Twin Studies: Comparing traits in twins; identical (monozygotic) or fraternal (dizygotic).
  • Limitations: Limited generalizability; environmental factors.
  • Artificial Selection: Humans choosing traits; natural selection through breeding.
  • Natural Selection Components: Variation, heritability, differential fitness.
  • Adaptation: Inherited trait enhancing survival/reproduction.
  • Differential Fitness: Varying success in reproductivity and survival.
  • Functionalism: Examining the adaptive functions of behaviors.
  • Distal/Proximal Explanations: Distal (historical) vs. proximal (current factors).
  • Need to Belong: Humans' fundamental need for social connections.

Biological Bases of Behavior

  • Neuron Types: Sensory, motor, interneurons.
  • Neuron Structure: Dendrites, axon, cell body, myelin sheath.
  • Myelin/Glial Cells: Support neuron function by insulation and protection of the axon.
  • Neurotransmission: Electrical signal in neuron, chemical signal between neurons.
  • Action Potential Steps: Resting potential, depolarization, voltage threshold, repolarization, refractory period.
  • Synaptic Cleft: Space between neurons.
  • Neurotransmitter: Chemical messenger.
  • Receptor: Protein in receiving neuron.
  • Neurotransmitter Removal: Reuptake, enzyme degradation.
  • Excitatory/Inhibitory Signals: Stimulating/Repressing.
  • Neurotransmitter Functions:
    • GABA: Inhibitory; key for relaxation.
    • Acetylcholine: Excitatory; memory, movement.
    • Norepinephrine: Excitatory; alertness, arousal, attention.
    • Serotonin: Inhibitory; mood regulation.
    • Dopamine: Pleasurable (reward centers or dopamine pathways; motivation.
    • Endorphins: Pain relief, mood.
  • Psychoactive Drugs: Chemical substances affecting brain function.
  • Agonists/Antagonists: Enhancing/Blocking neurotransmitter action.
  • Nerve/Nervous System: Large collection of neuron connections; bodily messaging.
  • Nervous System Subdivisions: CNS (brain, spinal cord); PNS (nerves outside CNS).
  • Endocrine System: System of glands regulating hormones.
  • Pituitary Gland: Master endocrine gland regulating others.
  • Oxytocin: Hormone associated with social behavior; bonding, trust, social behavior.
  • Spinal Reflex: Nervous system response without brain involvement.
  • Brain Structures: Pons, medulla oblongata, reticular formation, cerebellum (movement coordination, timing).
  • Limbic System: Emotions and memory.
  • Capgras Syndrome: Belief that loved ones have been replaced.
  • Cerebral Cortex Lobes: Frontal (planning, decision making), parietal (sensation, perception), temporal (hearing, language), occipital (vision).
  • Topographical Organization: Body part representation proportional to the amount of brain space devoted to control or processing.
  • Primary/Association Cortex: Primary receives basic sensory inputs, association combines for complex functions.
  • Hemisphere Communication: Corpus callosum.
  • Contralateral Organization: One side of the brain controls the opposite side of the body.
  • Lateralization: Specialization of each hemisphere. (e.g., language, spatial skills).
  • Split-Brain Patients: Severed corpus callosum.
  • Broca's/Wernicke's Areas: Language centers in the brain.
  • Brain Study Approaches: EEG, fMRI, PET scans, lesion studies, etc.
  • Neural Plasticity: Brain's ability to change and adapt.
  • Phantom Limb Syndrome: Feelings related to missing limb.
  • Critical Period: Specific developmental time when the brain experiences rapid changes.

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This quiz covers key definitions and concepts in psychology, including the distinctions between scientific and folk psychology. Explore the limitations of personal experiences and intuition in understanding human behavior. Test your knowledge on fundamental psychological terms and theories.

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