Psychology Chapter: Social Comparison Theory

The Self and its Development

• Carl Rogers described personality as a single construct, the self-concept.
• The self-concept is a collection of beliefs about one's nature, qualities, and behaviors.
• It's a mental picture of oneself, encompassing self-perceptions like "easy-going," "intelligent," or "hardworking."
• The self-concept is a multifaceted structure, organized into self-schemas.
• Self-schemas are beliefs developed from past experiences, encompassing personality traits, abilities, physical features, values, goals, and social roles.
• These schemas are based on dimensions like strengths and weaknesses, important to the individual.

Hazel Markus and the Working Self-Concept

• Contemporary psychologists argue that only a portion of the self-concept is accessible at any given time.
• This accessible portion is called the "working self-concept."
• Self-schemas influence how individuals process information about themselves; thoughts and feelings associated with a specific self-schema strongly affect how information is interpreted.

Possible Selves

• Markus introduces "possible selves," representing conceptions of the future self.
• Possible selves are shaped by past experiences, current behavior, and future expectations, and motivate individuals to pursue their goals.

Self-Discrepancy Theory (Higgins)

• Individuals have multiple self-perceptions: actual self (qualities believed true), ideal self (desired qualities), and ought self (qualities believed necessary).
• Discrepancy between these perceptions can cause emotional reactions.
• Actual versus ideal self discrepancies evoke dejected feelings (sadness, disappointment).

Self-Discrepancies and Their Effects

• When people adhere to their ideal or ought selves, self-esteem is high.
• Discrepancies between actual and ideal selves correlate with dissatisfaction and dejection.
• Discrepancies do not always result in predicted emotions; their impact depends on their magnitude, awareness, and importance.

Coping with Self-Discrepancy

• People might change behavior to match their desired self-image.
• Self-awareness can be blunted to lessen emotional distress (e.g., alcohol use).

Factors Shaping Self-Concept

• Self-evaluations are influenced by observations, feedback, and cultural perspectives.
• Individuals assess their abilities and opinions by comparing themselves to others in their reference groups.

Subjectivity

• People tend to view themselves favorably.
• There is a general tendency to overrate competence and underestimate flaws in self-assessments.

Feedback from Others

• Self-concept is significantly shaped by feedback from others.
• Parents and other family members have a large influence early in life.
• Feedback filters through social perception systems, which can distort self-perceptions.

Cultural Values

• Cultural values shape self-concepts, defining desirable and undesirable traits.

Ethnicity and Self-Esteem

• Minority group members develop strategies to manage self-esteem when faced with prejudice.

Gender and Self-Esteem

• Differences in self-esteem between genders are complex and debated.

Basic Principles of Self-Perception: Cognitive Processes

• People process a vast amount of information daily using cognitive shortcuts.
• Cognitive resources are limited, so people use automatic processing to conserve these resources.

Self-Attributions

• Self-attributions are inferences regarding the causes of one's behaviors.
• Internal attributions ascribe causes to personal factors, while external attributions ascribe causes to situational factors.
• Attributional style, a tendency to use similar causal explanations in various situations.
• Internal versus external attributions and the stability of the cause can affect emotional states (like depression).

Controllability

• Controllability of behavior, whether internal or external, impacts how individuals perceive their actions and react to consequences.

Attributional Style

• Attributional style describes consistent use of different causal explanations for events.
• Optimistic styles attribute setbacks to external factors and unstable circumstances; pessimistic styles relate setbacks to internal and stable causes.

Self-Regulation

• Self-regulation is the process of directing and controlling behavior and thoughts.
• Self-efficacy, one's belief in one's capacity to achieve specific goals, is a key aspect of self-regulation.

Self-Presentation

• Self-presentation involves how a person wants others to perceive them; it's a dynamic process that adjusts to various social situations with conscious or unconscious attempts.
• Impression management is associated with various tactics to form positive impressions on others like ingratiation, self-promotion, exemplification, and intimidation.

Self-Striving

• People strive to present themselves positively. This involves interpreting and adapting behavior to produce a desirable image.

Self-Enhancement

• Self-enhancement involves maintaining positive feelings about the self.
• It involves seeking positive feedback.

Self-Monitoring

• Self-monitoring is the degree to which individuals are aware of how they are perceived by others.
• High self-monitors are more sensitive to their impact on others and try to adjust behaviors accordingly.
• Low self-monitors are less concerned with others' perceptions and behave more spontaneously.

Explore key concepts from social comparison theory and self-efficacy in this engaging quiz. Test your understanding of reference groups, self-regulation, and the influences on individual behavior. Perfect for students looking to deepen their knowledge of psychological theories and their applications.