Psychology Chapter: Reinforcement and Emotion Theories

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Questions and Answers

Which theory suggests that emotions result from bodily sensations?

James-Lange Theory (correct)

Cannon-Bard Theory

Lazarus and Folkman Theory

Schachter-Singer Theory

In the Acculturation Model, what does 'Integration' refer to?

Rejecting origin culture while embracing host culture

Embracing origin culture while rejecting host culture

Rejecting both origin and host cultures

Embracing both origin and host cultures (correct)

What is the primary aim of Covert Sensitization?

To reinforce positive habits

To enhance emotional experiences

To reduce unwanted behaviors (correct)

To increase desire for a behavior

Which type of reinforcement involves the removal of an aversive stimulus?

Negative Reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) tests for various scales, except for which of the following?

Extraversion Signup and view all the answers

What does Cued Memory assist with during recall?

Remembering items with the help of a cue Signup and view all the answers

Which personality test primarily measures extraversion and neuroticism?

Eysenck Personality Inventory Signup and view all the answers

What does the process of Marginalisation in the Acculturation Model refer to?

Rejecting both the origin and host cultures Signup and view all the answers

Which schedule of reinforcement provides a reward after an unpredictable number of responses?

Variable Ratio (VR) Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the Fixed Interval (FI) schedule of reinforcement?

A reward is provided after a specific time period. Signup and view all the answers

According to the James-Lange theory, what causes emotions?

Bodily changes that feedback to the brain. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main critique of the James-Lange theory of emotion?

Bodily responses aren't specific enough to differentiate emotions. Signup and view all the answers

In the Cannon-Bard theory, what triggers emotional experience?

Signals from the thalamus to the cortex and bodily systems. Signup and view all the answers

What does Lazarus and Folkman's Transactional Model emphasize regarding stress?

Stress arises from resource appraisal exceeding individual capabilities. Signup and view all the answers

What does the Schachter-Singer Theory identify as crucial for emotion?

Physiological arousal and cognitive labeling. Signup and view all the answers

How does the Variable Interval (VI) schedule affect response rates?

It yields a steady response rate. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'Pronator Drift' indicate about a patient's condition?

A right cerebral hemisphere lesion. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of delusion is characterized by the belief that a person has been replaced by a double?

Capgras Syndrome. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following tests assesses executive function?

Stroop test. Signup and view all the answers

What does Alexia without Agraphia indicate?

Ability to write but unable to read. Signup and view all the answers

What is a common cause of stupor in patients?

Depression. Signup and view all the answers

What is the potential downside of repression according to Freud?

It may lead to complications if ignored. Signup and view all the answers

Which term is used to describe speech that involves new word formations?

Phonemic Jargon. Signup and view all the answers

What type of play develops first in children?

Solitary play Signup and view all the answers

Emotional insight is defined as what?

Emotional understanding accompanied by change. Signup and view all the answers

Which symptom is NOT a pathognomic symptom of grief?

Increased social engagement Signup and view all the answers

What describes the condition known as Negativism?

Resistance to examiner’s instructions. Signup and view all the answers

What best characterizes anaclitic depression in infants?

Withdrawal and depression after separation Signup and view all the answers

What does assimilation involve in Piaget's theory of adaptation?

Using existing experiences to address new problems Signup and view all the answers

In the three stages of bereavement, what is the second stage?

Discomfort and social withdrawal Signup and view all the answers

What role do transitional objects play for infants?

They act as substitutes for the mother. Signup and view all the answers

How did Bowlby characterize infants in terms of their dependence on caregivers?

They have an innate helplessness. Signup and view all the answers

What is the mechanism of action for bupropion?

Aminoketone Signup and view all the answers

What is the half-life of Zolpidem?

2.6 hours Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following medications is associated with urinary retention?

Donepezil Signup and view all the answers

Which drug class does Lofepramine belong to?

TCA Signup and view all the answers

What type of drugs avoid hepatic metabolism?

Gabapentin and sulpiride Signup and view all the answers

What is unique about carbamazepine?

It is autoinductive Signup and view all the answers

What effect does grapefruit juice have on medication absorption?

Inhibits P Glycoprotein Signup and view all the answers

Which receptor's antagonism is associated with weight gain?

5HT-2C Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Schedules of Reinforcement

Variable Ratio (VR) schedules generate a high and consistent response rate due to an unpredictable reward system. This is highly effective and resistant to extinction, often seen in gambling.
Fixed Interval (FI) schedules provide a reward after a set amount of time, regardless of the response rate. This often results in a slow response rate, with activity spikes near the anticipated reward time.
Variable Interval (VI) schedules offer rewards at unpredictable time intervals, maintaining a steady response rate. This is seen in random checks at work.
Intermittent schedules, particularly variable ratio schedules, are known to be highly resistant to extinction.

Theories of Emotion

James-Lange Theory proposes that emotions are derived from bodily changes, which are then interpreted by the brain. However, critics argue that bodily responses lack the specificity to differentiate emotions accurately.
Cannon-Bard Theory suggests that emotional experience is triggered by signals directly from the thalamus to the cortex and bodily systems. This differs from James-Lange by arguing that emotion and bodily reactions occur simultaneously, with emotion preceding feedback from the body.
Lazarus and Folkman's Transactional Model frames psychological stress as arising when individuals perceive a situation as exceeding their coping resources. This involves two stages: cognitive appraisal (evaluation of the situation) and coping. This theory suggests that appraisal precedes emotional response, contrasting with the idea of affective primacy.
Schachter-Singer Theory (Two-Factor Theory) posits that emotions result from physiological arousal and cognitive labeling based on the context. If an appropriate label is not identified, arousal may be interpreted negatively. Emotion is seen as an attribution of arousal based on situational cues.

Acculturation Model

Assimilation involves rejecting the origin culture and embracing the host culture.
Separation involves embracing the origin culture while rejecting the host culture.
Marginalization involves rejecting both the origin and host cultures.
Integration involves embracing both the origin and host cultures.

Covert Sensitization

Covert sensitization is a technique used in behavioral therapy to reduce undesirable behaviors, such as addictions or harmful habits.
It utilizes the imagination by pairing the unwanted behavior with the visualization of an unpleasant consequence, aiming to reduce the desire to engage in the behavior over time.
This is a form of aversion therapy, but it occurs in the person's imagination rather than in real life.

Operant Conditioning

Positive Reinforcement occurs when a behavior is followed by a desirable outcome, such as giving candy.
Negative Reinforcement occurs when a behavior is followed by removing an aversive stimulus, such as avoiding drinking to prevent the Disulfiram reaction.

Personality Tests

Eysenck test scales extraversion and neuroticism.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) scales hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, psychopathic deviate, masculinity, femininity, paranoia, psychasthenia, schizophrenia, hypomania, and social introversion.
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) uses black and white pictures of ambiguous persons and scenes.
National Adult Reading Test (NART) assesses premorbid intelligence.

Cued Memory

Cued recall involves remembering items with the assistance of a cue, such as the first letter of the item.

Stigma

Two main types:
- Social stigma: negative stereotypes and prejudices associated with a person's identity or condition.
- Self-stigma: individuals internalizing negative social attitudes, leading to self-devaluation and shame.

Freud and Repression

Freud viewed repression as a crucial function of the mind, protecting individuals from psychological harm. However, he acknowledged that complications could arise if these repressed elements are not addressed.

Condensation

A mechanism where several unconscious wishes combine into a single image within the manifest dream content.

Development

Child Play

Solitary Play: the earliest form of play.
Parallel Play: Begins around 2 years old.
Co-operative Play: Begins around 3 years old.
Rule-Governed Play: Begins around 5 years old.

Child Progression

6-8 weeks: Child starts cooing.
6 months: Child begins babbling.

Three Stage Bereavement

Stage 1: Disbelief, Shock, Denial.
Stage 2: Discomfort, social withdrawal.
Stage 3: Restitution and Reorganisation.

Pathognomic Symptoms of Grief

Somatic distress: physical signs and symptoms.
Preoccupation with images of the deceased.
Hostile reactions.
Loss of conduct.
Behaving like the deceased.

Anaclitic Depression

This occurs when children experience depression following separation from their mothers for varying lengths of time.
Children become depressed, withdrawn, nonresponsive, and vulnerable to physical illness.
They often recover when their mothers return or when surrogate mothering is available.

Adaptation of the Infant (Piaget)

Two forms of adaptation:
- Assimilation: Using existing experiences to solve new problems.
- Accommodation: Modifying existing experiences to solve new problems.

Transitional Objects

Objects like pacifiers, blankets, or teddy bears that serve as substitutes for the mother.

Infants are Helpless (Bowlby)

Bowlby described infants as having an innate state of helplessness and would perish without their caregivers.

Pronator Drift

Indicates a right cerebral hemisphere lesion.

Alexia without Agraphia

Pure word blindness.
Individuals can write but are unable to read.
Associated with the posterior cerebral artery.

T1 Imaging in MRI

Used to assess normal brain structure.
Provides fine details of the figure.
Helpful in identifying left hemispheric damage.

Assessing White Matter Fibres

Modality used for this purpose is diffusion tensor imaging (DTI).

Emotional and Intellectual Insight

Emotional insight: Blends emotional understanding with the ability to change.
Intellectual insight: Demonstrates logical understanding without an emotional connection.

Executive Function Testing

Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Category Test, Trail Making Test, Stroop Test.

Parapraxis

Known as slips of the tongue.
Freud attributed these to unconscious motives.

Autochthonous Delusion

A type of primary delusion that suddenly appears in the patient's mind.

Schnauzkrampf

Snout Spasm.

Thought Broadcasting

Belief that one's thoughts are accessible to others.

Capgras Syndrome

Patient believes a person has been replaced by a double.
Commonly seen in schizophrenia.

Negativism

Patient resists the examiner's instructions.
A catatonic sign.

Stupor

No reaction to external stimuli.
Most common cause is depression.

Semantic Jargon

Ordinary words are strung together to form unintelligible utterances.

Phonemic Jargon

Speech involving neologisms (made-up words).

Alexithymia

Difficulty recognizing and expressing emotions.

First SSRI Introduced to Market

Zimeldine.

Bupropion

Class: Aminoketone.
Mechanism: SNRI (Serotonin-Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitor).
Associated with weight loss.

Rapidly Absorbed Sedation

Zolpidem has a half-life of 2.6 hours.

Drugs That Do Not Undergo Hepatic Metabolism

Gabapentin, sulpiride, amisulpride, and lithium.

Therapeutic Index

The difference between therapeutic effects and toxic effects when dosing.
Over-the-counter medication like paracetamol has a much higher index.

Most Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor (SSRI)

Citalopram and escitalopram.

Least Sedating Tricyclic Antidepressant (TCA)

Lofepramine.

Zero Order Kinetic Drug Examples

Ethanol, phenytoin, high dose salicylates, high dose fluoxetine, high dose omeprazole.

Aripiprazole Half-life

3 days.

Carbamazepine

Metabolite induces its own metabolism (autoinduction).
Steady state takes 2 weeks to achieve.

Paroxetine

Also exhibits autoinduction behavior.

Bioavailability Calculation

Requires determining the dose when given intravenously (IV).

Ways to Improve Medication Absorption

Slower intestinal motility.
Balance of water and lipid permeability.
Inhibition of P-glycoprotein (grapefruit juice increases absorption of some drugs).
Reduced particle size.

Managing Alcohol Withdrawal in Impaired Liver Function

Use oxazepam or lorazepam.

Diuretics to Control Polyuria Induced by Lithium

Lithium-induced polyuria results in the kidneys losing the ability to concentrate urine, leading to excessive output.
Diuretics, like thiazides, can reduce polyuria by causing mild dehydration.
The dehydration signals the kidneys to retain more water, reducing urine output.
However, thiazides can increase lithium levels, so careful monitoring is essential.

Donepezil

Causes urinary retention.

Receptor Responsible for Weight Gain

5HT-2C antagonism.

Most Toxic Benzodiazepine

Alprazolam.

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Explore key concepts from psychology's reinforcement schedules and the major theories of emotion. Understand how different schedules influence behavior and examine the arguments surrounding various emotional theories. This quiz will test your knowledge on both topics.