Psychology Chapter on Psychoactive Drugs and Hypnosis

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

The use of systematic methods to observe the natural world, including human behavior,and to draw conclusions.

Everything we do that can be directly observed.

The thoughts, feelings, and motives that people experience privately but that cannot be observed directly.

Disciplined thinking that is clear, rational, open-minded, and informed by evidence.

Gaining knowledge through the observation of events, the collection of data and logical reasoning.

An approach to psychology emphasizing unconscious thought, the conflict between biological drives (such as the drive for sex) and society's demands, and early childhood family experiences.

An approach to psychology emphasizing a persons positive qualities, the capacity for positive human growth and the freedom to choose one's own destiny.

A testable prediction that can be logically derived from a theory.

A specific, objective description of how a variable will be measured and observed in a study.

A detailed analysis of a single person or case, also known as a case history.

A research method that explores the relationship between two or more variables, investigating how they change together.

An unmeasured variable that influences the relationship between two other variables in a study.

A type of systematic observation where data is collected repeatedly over time.

A controlled procedure where a researcher manipulates one or more variables to observe their effects.

Assigning participants to groups randomly, ensuring that each participant has an equal chance of being in any group.

The variable that is manipulated by the experimenter in an experiment.

A participant who plays a specific role in a study to manipulate the social context.

The outcome factor that is measured in an experiment to see how it changes in response to the independent variable.

The participants in an experiment who receive the treatment or manipulation under investigation.

The participants in an experiment who are similar to the experimental group but do not receive the manipulated treatment.

The quality of the conclusions drawn from an experiment, indicating whether they are sound and reliable.

The extent to which the findings of an experiment can be generalized to real-world situations.

The part of the brain responsible for voluntary movements, located behind the frontal lobes.

The brain's control center for planning, reasoning, and self-control, located in the frontal lobe.

The area in the brain that processes information about body sensations, located at the front of the parietal lobes.

The large bundle of nerve fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain, allowing them to communicate.

A pea-sized gland located at the base of the brain, responsible for regulating hormone production and linking the nervous and endocrine systems.

Two glands located above the kidneys, regulating mood, energy, and stress response.

Chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands, carried by the bloodstream to various body parts.

The study of the structure, function, and diseases of the eyes.

The study of the nervous system and its disorders.

Specialized cells that detect stimuli and send signals to the brain through sensory nerves.

Specialized cells responsible for processing and transmitting information in the nervous system.

Supporting cells that provide nutrients and protection for neurons.

The central part of a neuron containing the nucleus, which controls the neuron's functions.

A fatty layer that insulates axons, speeding up the transmission of nerve impulses.

Branching fibers that receive information from other neurons and transmit it to the cell body.

The elongated part of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body to other cells.

The stable, negative electrical charge of a neuron at rest.

A brief, positive electrical charge that travels down the axon of a neuron.

The principle that a neuron either fires completely or not at all.

Tiny gaps between neurons where information is transmitted.

Chemical messengers that transmit information across synapses.

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle control, learning, and memory.

A neurotransmitter that inhibits the firing of neurons, involved in anxiety regulation.

A neurotransmitter involved in stress response, mood, and arousal.

A neurotransmitter involved in movement, motivation, and pleasure.

A theory that suggests dreams can be understood using the same cognitive processes we use when awake.

Drugs that directly affect the nervous system, changing consciousness, perceptions, and mood.

The need to increase drug dosage to achieve the same effect.

The physical discomfort and craving when stopping a drug.

The psychological craving for a drug for emotional reasons.

A state of physical or psychological dependence, or both, on a drug.

Drugs that slow down mental and physical activity.

A state of chronic, excessive alcohol use that harms physical and social well-being.

The smallest difference between two stimuli that a person can detect half the time.

The principle that two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount) to be perceived as different.

The detection of information below the level of conscious awareness.

A predisposition or readiness to perceive something in a particular way.

A change in the responsiveness of the sensory system based on the average level of surrounding simulation.

The white outer part of the eye that helps to maintain the shape of the eye and to protect it from injury.

The colored part of the eye that controls the size of the pupil, and hence regulates the amount of light that enters the eye.

The opening in the center of the iris which appears black.

A transparent and somewhat flexible disc-like structure filled with a gelatin-like material that focuses light rays on the retina.

The light-sensitive surface that records electromagnetic energy and converts it to neural impulses for processing in the brain.

A spiral structure in the inner ear, filled with fluid and containing the basilar membrane.

A membrane inside the cochlea that vibrates in response to sound frequencies.

Devices that replace damaged hair cells in the inner ear, allowing hearing impaired individuals to perceive sound.

Theory stating that different sound frequencies cause vibrations at specific locations on the basilar membrane.

Theory stating that the frequency of a sound is determined by the rate at which auditory nerve fibers fire.

A group of nerve cells in the auditory system can fire in rapid succession, increasing the overall firing rate, and allowing for perception of higher frequencies.

The nerve that carries auditory information from the hair cells in the inner ear to the brain.

The thin membrane that vibrates in response to sound waves, transferring those vibrations to the middle ear bones.

Sensory receptors in the skin that detect touch, temperature, and pain.

Sensory receptors in the skin that respond to changes in temperature, helping to regulate body temperature.

A sensation that warns of potential harm or damage to the body.

The lining of the roof of the nasal cavity containing receptor cells that detect smell.

Senses that provide information about body movement, posture, and orientation.

The sense responsible for balance and spatial orientation.

Three fluid-filled canals in the inner ear that contain sensory receptors for detecting head and body movements.

The mental process of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available.

Intermediate goals or intermediate problems that put us in a better position for reaching the final goal or solution.

Strategies—including formulas, instructions, and the testing of all possible solutions—that guarantee a solution to a problem.

Shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer.

Using a prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a fresh new perspective.

Failing to solve a problem as a result of fixation on a thing's usual functions.

The mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions.

Reasoning from a general case that is known to be true to a specific instance.

Reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations.

The tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

The tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that one has accurately predicted an outcome.

A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience.

A theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors, discounting the importance of mental activity such as thinking, wishing, and hoping.

Learning that occurs when an organism makes a connection or association, between two events.

Learning that occurs through observing and imitating another's behavior.

Learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an innately meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.

The initial learning of the connection between the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus when these two stimuli are paired.

The tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response.

The process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others.

The weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent.

The process in classical conditioning by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning.

A form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior's occurrence.

Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened.

Rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior.

The process by which a stimulus or event (a reinforcer) following a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will happen again.

A requirement of some material (such as food or water) that is essential for the survival of the organism.

A psychological tension and physical arousal arising when there is a need that motivates the organism to act in order to fulfill the need and reduce the tension.

Approach to motivation that assumes behavior arises from physiological needs that cause internal drives to push the organism to satisfy the need and reduce tension and arousal.

Those drives that involve needs of the body such as hunger and thirst.

Those drives that are learned through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money or social approval.

The tendency of the body to maintain a steady state.

A need that involves a strong desire to succeed in attaining goals, not only realistic ones but also challenging ones.

The need for friendly social interactions and relationships with others.

The need to have control or influence over others.

A motive that appears to be unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation, such as curiosity.

Theory of motivation in which people are said to have an optimal (best or ideal) level of tension that they seek to maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation.

Someone who needs more arousal than the average person.

Things that attract or lure people into action.

Theories of motivation in which behavior is explained as a response to the external stimulus and its rewarding properties.

According to Maslow, the point that is seldom reached at which people have sufficiently satisfied the lower needs and achieved their full human potential.

A psychological illness characterized by extreme mood swings between depression and extreme happiness, or mania.

Psychological disorders that involve a sudden loss of memory or change in identity due to the dissociation (separation) of the individual's conscious awareness from previous memories and thoughts.

Dissociative disorder characterized by the sudden and extensive inability to recall important personal information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature.

A rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities.

A psychological disorder in which a person loses contact with reality, experiencing irrational ideas and distorted perceptions.

A psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression.

False sensory experiences, like seeing or hearing things that aren't there.

False beliefs held despite clear evidence to the contrary.

Chronic, maladaptive cognitive-behavioral patterns that are thoroughly integrated into an individual's personality.

Psychological disorder characterized by guiltlessness, law-breaking, exploitation of others, irresponsibility, and deceit.

The internally programmed growth of a child, influenced by genetics and biological factors.

The process of interpreting new experiences and information in terms of existing mental structures or schemas.

The process of modifying existing schemas or creating new ones to accommodate new experiences and information that do not fit into current understanding.

The first stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development, from birth to about 2 years, characterized by infants' reliance on sensory experiences and motor actions to understand the world.

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight. Develops during the sensorimotor stage.

The second stage of Piaget's theory, from about 2 to 7 years old, marked by the development of language and symbolic thought, but characterized by limitations in logical thinking.

The inability of preoperational children to take another person's perspective or understand that others may have different viewpoints.

The third stage of Piaget's theory, from about 7 to 11 years old, characterized by the ability to perform logical operations on concrete objects and understand conservation.

The principle that certain properties of an object remain the same despite changes in its appearance. Developed during the concrete operational stage.

The time period between the beginning of puberty and adulthood, typically from about ages 10-19, marked by significant physical, cognitive, and social changes.

The period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.

The physical features associated with gender but not directly involved in reproduction, such as breasts and facial hair.

The fourth and final stage of Piaget's theory, from about age 12 and up, characterized by the ability to reason about abstract concepts and think hypothetically.

The period from the late teens to early twenties, characterized by exploration, identity formation, and a transition towards full independence and responsible adulthood.

The time in a woman's life when the menstrual cycle ends.

Explaining someone's behavior by attributing it to either their personality or the situation they're in.

Attributing someone's behavior to their personality or internal qualities. For example, blaming a child's anger on their aggressive personality.

Attributing someone's behavior to external factors or the surrounding situation. For example, explaining a child's anger as a result of stress or abuse.

The tendency to overestimate the impact of someone's personality and underestimate the influence of the situation when explaining their actions.

The tendency to take credit for successes and blame failures on external factors.

Feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that make us react in a specific way to people, things, and events.

The tendency to agree to a larger request after first agreeing to a smaller one.

Trying to persuade someone by first making a large, unreasonable request, then following up with a smaller, more reasonable request.

The tension we experience when our actions clash with our beliefs, leading us to try and reduce this discomfort by changing our attitude.

Adjusting our behavior or thinking to align with the standards of a group.

Persuading someone to fit in or be like the others. It's about social pressure.

Persuading someone based on facts or evidence. It's about logic and information.

Performing better on simple or well-learned tasks when in the presence of others, compared to doing them alone.

Exerting less effort when working in a group towards a common goal, compared to working alone.

The loss of self-awareness and restraint in group situations, leading to behaviors we wouldn't do alone.

A mental structure, present from birth, driven by basic biological desires and seeking immediate gratification. It operates entirely without consciousness, demanding satisfaction regardless of consequences. It is the source of our primal urges, like hunger and sex.

The second mental structure, developing during the first year of life. It acts as a mediator between the Id's demands and the real world's constraints. It functions based on the reality principle, compromising and delaying gratification to achieve goals.

The third mental structure, acting as a moral compass and setting high ethical standards. It represents internalized societal rules and values, guiding our behavior and evaluating our actions. It can induce feelings of guilt and shame when we fall short of its ideals.

A process described by Freud, where individuals experience a series of developmental stages linked to pleasure-seeking impulses directed at specific body parts. Each stage holds specific challenges and influences personality development.

The first stage of psychosexual development, where pleasure is derived primarily through oral activities, such as sucking, biting, and chewing.

The second stage of psychosexual development, where pleasure is centered around the anus and the control of bowel movements.

The third stage of psychosexual development, where pleasure is associated with the genitals and the child's developing awareness of their body and sexuality.

A complex in the phallic stage where boys experience attraction to their mother and perceive their father as a rival, creating feelings of jealousy and castration anxiety.

A complex identified by Freud, where girls experience attraction towards their father and envy their mother, leading to a wish to replace her.

A phase in psychosexual development where sexual impulses are repressed and social and intellectual development are more prominent, occurring around the ages of six to puberty.

The tendency to believe that those of another race all look similar.

The tendency to live up to or down to expectations about a behavior or ability placed on us by ourselves or others.

The tendency to assume positive characteristics of those whom we find attractive.

The "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships.

The mental processes we use to form judgments and draw conclusions about the characteristics and motives of other people.

The tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities.

Comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability.

Comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability.

The perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself.

A set of expectations about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

A theory of how persuasive messages lead to attitude changes.

An attitude, such as prejudice, that one is not aware of having.