Psychology Chapter on Psychoactive Drugs and Hypnosis
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following is considered a type of psychoactive drug that slows down mental and physical activity?

  • Cocaine
  • Amphetamines
  • Caffeine
  • Alcohol (correct)

    • Physical dependence on a drug does not lead to withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued.

    False

    What is the world's most widely used psychoactive drug?

    Caffeine

    The theory proposing that we can understand dreaming by using cognitive concepts is called the ______ theory of dreaming.

    <p>cognitive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the terms with their definitions:

    <p>Addiction = Physical or psychological dependence on a drug Opiates = Narcotic drugs that eliminate pain Stimulants = Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity Meditation = Attainment of a peaceful state of mind</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which view of hypnosis suggests that there are two separate components of consciousness during hypnosis?

    <p>Divided consciousness view</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Tolerance refers to the ability to experience a drug's effects without increasing the dose.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What psychological state involves being unusually receptive to suggestions?

    <p>Hypnosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of structuralism in psychology?

    <p>The basic elements of mental processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Functionalism emphasizes the static nature of mental processes.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What principle describes the process by which organisms best adapted to their environment survive and reproduce?

    <p>natural selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    An approach to psychology that focuses on observable behaviors is known as the ______ approach.

    <p>behavioral</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the psychological approaches with their descriptions:

    <p>Biological = Focuses on the body, especially the brain and nervous system Cognitive = Emphasizes mental processes involved in knowing Humanistic = Emphasizes positive qualities and human growth Sociocultural = Examines the influence of social and cultural environments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT an approach to psychology?

    <p>Empirical</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Critical thinking is characterized by irrationality and lack of evidence.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the parietal lobes?

    <p>Registering spatial location, attention, and motor control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'variable' refer to in psychology?

    <p>anything that can change</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The motor cortex is located just in front of the parietal lobes.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormone is primarily released by the pituitary gland?

    <p>growth hormone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ____________ is responsible for relaying information between the two hemispheres of the brain.

    <p>corpus callosum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following anatomical structures with their functions:

    <p>Broca's area = Control of speech Wernicke's area = Understanding language Adrenal glands = Regulating stress responses Somatosensory cortex = Processing body sensations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the function of the endocrine system?

    <p>Controls bodily functions through hormone release</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Chromosomes are composed of RNA that carries genetic information.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Define genotype.

    <p>A person's genetic heritage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The minimum amount of stimulus energy that a person can detect is known as the ____________.

    <p>absolute threshold</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do sensory receptors do?

    <p>Detect stimulus information and transmit it to the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Weber's law state regarding stimuli?

    <p>Stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage to be perceived as different.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Subliminal perception refers to the detection of information above the level of conscious awareness.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the iris in the eye?

    <p>To control the size of the pupil.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The white outer part of the eye is known as the ______.

    <p>sclera</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure in the visual system processes color perception?

    <p>Cones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their definitions:

    <p>Amplitude = The perception of sound wave pressure Pitch = The perceptual interpretation of sound frequency Timbre = The tone quality of a sound Loudness = The perceived strength of a sound wave</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Depth perception allows us to perceive objects in only two dimensions.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of feature detectors in the visual system?

    <p>To respond to particular features of a stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The perception that an object maintains the same color regardless of varying light conditions is known as ______.

    <p>color constancy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of cues rely on both eyes for depth perception?

    <p>Binocular cues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the neuron is responsible for carrying information away from the cell body?

    <p>Axon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Glial cells are the primary information-processing units of the nervous system.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the resting potential of a neuron?

    <p>The stable, negative charge of an inactive neuron.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ________ is the layer of fat cells that insulates most axons.

    <p>myelin sheath</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the neurotransmitter to its primary function:

    <p>Acetylcholine = Motor control and learning Dopamine = Voluntary movement and mood Serotonin = Sleep and mood regulation GABA = Control of neural firing precision</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about the action potential is true?

    <p>It travels down the axon without losing intensity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The hypothalamus is responsible for regulating hunger, sleep, and body temperature.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the cerebellum?

    <p>Motor coordination and motor learning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ________ are the tiny spaces between neurons where neurotransmission occurs.

    <p>Synapses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the part of the brain to its function:

    <p>Hippocampus = Memory storage Pons = Govern sleep and arousal Medulla = Breathing and reflexes Amygdala = Emotional memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is associated with feelings of pleasure and pain relief?

    <p>Endorphins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The basal ganglia are located below the thalamus and are primarily responsible for emotional memory.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does norepinephrine play in the body?

    <p>It inhibits neuron firing in the CNS and excites the heart muscle and intestines.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the cochlea?

    <p>Converts sound waves to neural signals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The semicircular canals are responsible for hearing.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information?

    <p>perception</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ is a nerve structure that carries neural impulses from the inner ear to the brain.

    <p>auditory nerve</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theory states that different frequencies produce vibrations at specific locations on the basilar membrane?

    <p>Place Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cutaneous senses include touch and taste.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the formal term for sleepwalking?

    <p>somnambulism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    REM sleep is associated with __________.

    <p>dreaming</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition is characterized by sudden overpowering urges to sleep?

    <p>Narcolepsy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Activation synthesis theory posits that dreaming results from the brain synthesizing neural activity.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Describe the term 'stream of consciousness' as defined by William James.

    <p>A continuous flow of changing sensations, images, thoughts, and feelings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ is responsible for the sensation of pain as a warning signal to potential damage.

    <p>Pain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes automatic processes?

    <p>Involve little attention and do not interfere with other activities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens during sleep with regards to biological rhythms?

    <p>They experience periodic fluctuations that influence behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Night terrors occur during REM sleep.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a testable prediction that derives logically from a theory called?

    <p>Hypothesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    An operational definition specifies how a variable will be measured in a study.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of research examines the relationships between variables?

    <p>Correlational research</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A study that involves looking in-depth at a single person is known as a ________.

    <p>case study</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The purpose of random assignment in an experiment is to:

    <p>Reduce the likelihood of preexisting differences between groups</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The independent variable is influenced by the dependent variable in an experiment.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the circumstance where an unmeasured variable influences the relationship between two other variables?

    <p>Third variable problem</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a drug study, a harmless substance given to participants in the control group is referred to as a ________.

    <p>placebo</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following nervous system components with their functions:

    <p>Afferent nerves = Carry information to the brain Efferent nerves = Carry information away from the brain Somatic nervous system = Conveys sensations to the CNS Autonomic nervous system = Regulates internal organs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of a double-blind experiment?

    <p>To keep both participants and experimenters unaware of group assignments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The control group receives the treatment that is being tested.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the body's response to environmental strain and threats to survival?

    <p>Stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The network of nerves that connects the brain and spinal cord to the body is called the ________.

    <p>peripheral nervous system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of validity assesses whether experimental changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable?

    <p>Internal validity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of stress, what is a stressor?

    <p>A circumstance or event that threatens survival</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a key concept of classical conditioning?

    <p>Reinforcement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Observational learning involves conditional responses to stimuli.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the law of effect?

    <p>Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened, while those followed by negative outcomes are weakened.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In operant conditioning, positive punishment involves the __________ of a stimulus.

    <p>presentation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the type of memory with its description:

    <p>Episodic Memory = Retention of life experiences Semantic Memory = Knowledge about the world Explicit Memory = Conscious recollection of information Implicit Memory = Behavior affected by prior experience without recall</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes the reduction in response caused by repeated exposure to the same stimulus?

    <p>Habituation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Shaping refers to rewarding a subject for improving their performance gradually.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of interference disrupts recall of material learned later due to earlier learning?

    <p>Proactive interference</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ability to hold information in its original sensory form for a brief moment is known as __________ memory.

    <p>sensory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process of learning to differentiate between similar stimuli in classical conditioning called?

    <p>Discrimination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Define learned helplessness.

    <p>When an organism learns it has no control over negative outcomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process of solving a problem by breaking it into manageable parts called?

    <p>Problem-solving</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Loss aversion refers to the tendency to prefer acquiring gains over avoiding losses.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The serial position effect explains why we often remember the middle items of a list best.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the tendency to rely on vague information despite having more accurate data available?

    <p>Base rate neglect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following reinforcement schedules with their definitions:

    <p>Fixed-Ratio = Reinforcement after a set number of responses Variable-Interval = Reinforcement at unpredictable time intervals Fixed-Interval = Reinforcement after a set amount of time Variable-Ratio = Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ effect is the tendency to recall items better at the beginning and the end of a list.

    <p>serial position</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _____ model emphasizes that evaluation of an item is done by comparing it to the most typical item in that category.

    <p>prototype</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which is an example of a primary reinforcer?

    <p>Food</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cognitive processes with their definitions:

    <p>Inductive reasoning = Generalizing from specific instances Deductive reasoning = Applying general principles to specific cases Heuristics = Shortcut strategies for problem solving Algorithms = Step-by-step procedures guaranteeing a solution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes functional fixedness?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Creative intelligence is part of Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a fertilized egg in prenatal development?

    <p>Zygote</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _____ effect refers to the tendency of individuals to overestimate their ability to have predicted an event after it has happened.

    <p>hindsight</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept refers to the ability to think of many solutions for the same problem?

    <p>Divergent thinking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mindfulness involves being mentally present in daily activities.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the measure that reflects the extent to which a test consistently produces reliable results?

    <p>Reliability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Intelligence quotient (IQ) is calculated by dividing an individual's _____ age by their chronological age and multiplying by 100.

    <p>mental</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process of fitting in new ideas into an existing cognitive structure called?

    <p>Assimilation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the key characteristics of the formal operational stage of cognitive development?

    <p>Logical thinking about abstract concepts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The psychosocial stage theory was developed by _________.

    <p>Erik Erikson</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following key figures to their contributions:

    <p>Mary Ainsworth = Strange Situation and attachment patterns Jean Piaget = Theory of cognitive development stages Lawrence Kohlberg = Theory of moral development in children Harry Harlow = Attachment studies with rhesus monkeys</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes the principle that properties such as mass and volume remain unchanged despite physical changes?

    <p>Conservation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Secondary sex characteristics are directly involved in reproduction.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'crystallized intelligence' refer to?

    <p>Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Elizabeth Kubler-Ross, the five stages of death and dying include denial, anger, bargaining, ________, and acceptance.

    <p>depression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the stages of moral development to their descriptions:

    <p>Preconventional Level = Self-interest determines morality Conventional Level = Adherence to social rules Postconventional Level = Morality based on abstract principles Concrete Operational Stage = Understanding conservation and logical thinking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which stage of cognitive development do children struggle with egocentrism?

    <p>Preoperational Stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fluid intelligence decreases as a person ages.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the definition of temperament?

    <p>Individual's characteristic manner of behavior or reaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The first phase of prenatal development is called the ________ stage.

    <p>germinal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychic structure is described as representing biological drives and operates entirely unconsciously?

    <p>Id</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The superego acts as a moral guardian and helps the ego maintain high standards of behavior.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the third stage of psychosexual development, characterized by a shift of libido to the phallic region?

    <p>Phallic stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______ principle curbs the appetites of the id while seeking gratification without social disapproval.

    <p>Reality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following stages of psychosexual development with their descriptions:

    <p>Oral = Gratification through oral activities Anal = Gratification through anal activities Latency = Repression of sexual impulses Genital = Mature expression of libido through intercourse</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of personality strives to achieve its full potential according to Adler?

    <p>Creative Self</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The latency stage is characterized by a heightened sexual awareness and exploration.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the conflict of the phallic stage in which a girl longs for her father called?

    <p>Electra Complex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______ unconscious contains vague memories that represent the history of humanity, according to Jung.

    <p>Collective</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used by Freud to describe the initial demands for instant gratification without social considerations?

    <p>Pleasure Principle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of bipolar disorder?

    <p>Extreme mood swings between depression and mania</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Delusions are true beliefs that are held despite contrary evidence.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines dissociative identity disorder?

    <p>A rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A ____________ experiences false sensory experiences that have no basis in reality.

    <p>hallucination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following personality disorders with their characteristics:

    <p>Antisocial Personality Disorder = Guiltlessness, irresponsibility, and deceit Borderline Personality Disorder = Instability in relationships and self-image Narcissistic Personality Disorder = Exaggerated sense of importance and need for admiration Avoidant Personality Disorder = Social inhibition and feelings of inadequacy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes psychosis?

    <p>Loss of contact with reality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Flat affect refers to intense emotional responsiveness.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of therapeutic alliance in psychotherapy?

    <p>It serves as a bond of trust and mutual understanding between therapist and client.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The disbelief of personal meaning to random events is known as ____________ thinking.

    <p>referential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of therapies with their focus:

    <p>Psychodynamic Therapy = Unconscious mind and childhood experiences Cognitive Behavioral Therapy = Changing negative thought patterns Humanistic Therapy = Personal growth and self-actualization Behavior Therapy = Modifying specific behaviors through reinforcement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the drive-reduction theory primarily focused on?

    <p>Physiological needs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Homeostasis refers to the body's tendency to maintain a varying state.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are primary drives?

    <p>Needs of the body such as hunger and thirst.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Maslow, the point of self-actualization is where individuals have satisfied their lower needs and achieved their full ________.

    <p>human potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is considered a stimulus motive?

    <p>Curiosity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match each type of stress with its description:

    <p>Eustress = Positive stress that energizes a person Distress = Negative stress that can hinder goal achievement Cortisol = Stress hormone released by the adrenal cortex General Adaptation Syndrome = Three-stage physiological response to stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Cannon-Bard theory states that physiological reactions and emotions occur one after the other.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the ventromedial hypothalamus?

    <p>It stops the eating response and signals fullness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Schachter's cognitive arousal theory states that both physical ________ and the labeling of that arousal must occur before experiencing an emotion.

    <p>arousal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the need for power involve?

    <p>The need to control or influence others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Define psychosomatic response.

    <p>A physical reaction that is influenced by emotional factors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Lazarus and Folkman's Transactional Model of Stress and Coping suggests primary appraisal is the assessment of how to cope with stress.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Avoidance strategies are designed to ________ from thinking about the source of stress.

    <p>distract us</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following theories emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts in behavior?

    <p>Psychodynamic theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following stages of the General Adaptation Syndrome with their definitions:

    <p>Alarm Reaction Stage = Body mobilizes resources to cope with a stressor Resistance Stage = Intense physiological efforts to adapt to a stressor Exhaustion Stage = Characterized by a weakened immune system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which concept explains the tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences on behavior?

    <p>Fundamental attribution error</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Self-serving bias leads individuals to take credit for failures while blaming successes on others.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the phenomenon where individuals exert less effort when working in a group than when working alone?

    <p>social loafing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The theory that suggests individuals reduce discomfort when holding conflicting thoughts is known as ______.

    <p>cognitive dissonance theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between passionate love and companionate love?

    <p>Passionate love is more intense but short-lived compared to companionate love.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Group polarization can result in individuals adopting more extreme beliefs after discussing them in a like-minded group.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What psychological theory explains the rationale behind using a large request followed by a smaller one?

    <p>door in the face phenomenon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the attribution theory, __________ refers to attributing one's behavior to situational factors.

    <p>external/situational attribution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes the tendency to view outgroup members as being all alike?

    <p>Outgroup homogeneity bias</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The mere exposure effect suggests that repeated exposure to stimuli decreases liking.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the phenomenon where individuals lose self-awareness and restraint in group situations?

    <p>deindividuation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ principle states that blocking an attempt to achieve a goal can lead to aggression.

    <p>frustration aggression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following psychological concepts with their appropriate descriptions:

    <p>Normative social influence = Influence based on the desire to fit in Informational social influence = Influence based on evidence and facts Just world phenomenon = Belief that people get what they deserve Scapegoat theory = Outsourcing blame to alleviate personal frustration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following concepts suggests that individuals help those who are dependent upon them?

    <p>Social responsibility norm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychologist conducted the Stanford Prison Experiment?

    <p>Philip Zimbardo</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Milgram experiment focused on conformity rather than obedience.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the tendency to assume others of a different race all look similar?

    <p>Other-race Effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______ effect describes the tendency to assume that attractive people have other positive traits.

    <p>Halo</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the psychological disorders with their characteristics:

    <p>ADHD = Inattention and hyperactivity Panic disorder = Unpredictable episodes of intense dread OCD = Repetitive thoughts and actions Major depressive disorder = Significant depressive episode lasting at least two weeks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term refers to the perception that one is worse off compared to others?

    <p>Relative deprivation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A tight culture has relaxed social norms allowing for varied conformity.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the theory suggesting that pre-existing conditions may increase the risk of psychological disorders?

    <p>Vulnerability-stress hypothesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    _________ bias is the tendency to seek out information that supports our existing beliefs.

    <p>Confirmation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which anxiety disorder is characterized by a severe and persistent fear of a specific object or situation?

    <p>Specific phobia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The DSM-5 is a guide used to classify psychological disorders.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What psychological disorder is marked by unwanted repetitive thoughts and/or actions?

    <p>Obsessive-compulsive disorder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Belief perseverance is the tendency to stick to our ______ even when evidence contradicts them.

    <p>initial beliefs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for changing one's behavior upon command of an authority figure?

    <p>Obedience</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match each term related to culture with its definition:

    <p>Loose culture = Relaxed social norms Tight culture = Rigid social norms Cultural bias = Evaluating another culture through one's own Ethnocentrism = Assuming one's culture is superior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Introduction to Psychology

    • Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
    • Science is the systematic observation of the natural world, including human behavior, to draw conclusions.
    • Behavior is observable actions.
    • Mental processes are thoughts, feelings, and motives (unobservable).
    • Critical thinking is disciplined, rational, open-minded thinking supported by evidence.
    • The empirical method uses observation, data collection, and logic to acquire knowledge.

    Schools of Thought in Psychology

    • Structuralism: Wundt's approach to identifying basic mental structures.
    • Functionalism: James's approach focusing on functions and purposes of the mind and behavior for adaptation.
    • Natural Selection: Darwin's principle of organisms best adapted to their environments surviving and reproducing.
    • Biological Approach: Focuses on the body, brain, and nervous system.
    • Neuroscience: The scientific study of the nervous system's structures and functions in relation to behavior, feelings, and thoughts.
    • Behavioral Approach: Emphasizes observable behaviors and environmental influences.
    • Psychodynamic Approach: Highlights unconscious thoughts, conflicts (biological drives vs. societal demands), and early childhood experiences.
    • Humanistic Approach: Emphasizes positive qualities, personal growth, and free choice.
    • Cognitive Approach: Focuses on mental processes (attention, perception, memory, problem-solving).
    • Evolutionary Approach: Applies evolutionary principles (adaptation, reproduction, natural selection) to explain behaviors.
    • Sociocultural Approach: Examines the influence of social and cultural contexts on behavior.

    Research Methods in Psychology

    • Variable: Anything that can change.
    • Theory: A broad explanation that predicts future observations.
    • Hypothesis: A testable prediction based on a theory.
    • Operational Definition: Objective description of how a variable will be measured.
    • Case Study: In-depth study of a single person.
    • Correlational Research: Examines relationships between variables.
    • Third Variable Problem: A non-measured variable affecting the relationship between other variables.
    • Longitudinal Design: Observes variables over time.
    • Experiment: Carefully controlled procedure to manipulate variables.
    • Random Assignment: Participants randomly assigned to groups.
    • Independent Variable: Manipulated experimental factor.
    • Dependent Variable: Measured outcome variable.
    • Experimental Group: Receives the treatment.
    • Control Group: Receives no treatment or a placebo.
    • Validity: Soundness of research conclusions.
    • External Validity: Degree to which findings generalize to the real world.
    • Internal Validity: Degree to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the independent variable.
    • Experimenter Bias: Experimenter's expectations influencing results.
    • Demand Characteristics: Study aspects that communicate desired participant behavior.
    • Participant Bias: Participants' expectations influencing behavior.
    • Placebo Effect: Expectations influencing outcomes, not the treatment itself.
    • Placebo: Harmless substance with no physiological effect, given to the control group.
    • Double-Blind Study: Neither experimenter nor participants know group assignments until results are calculated.
    • Population: Entire group of interest.
    • Sample: Subset of the population studied.
    • Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in its natural setting.
    • Random Sample: Every member of the population has an equal chance of selection.

    Biological Basis of Behavior

    • Nervous System: Body's electrochemical communication network.
    • Plasticity: Brain's capacity for change.
    • Afferent Nerves: Carry sensory information to the brain and spinal cord.
    • Efferent Nerves: Carry information from the brain and spinal cord to other body parts.
    • Neural Networks: Networks of nerve cells that integrate information.
    • Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord.
    • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nerves connecting CNS to the rest of the body.
    • Somatic Nervous System: Sensory and motor nerves for skin, muscles, and external environment.
    • Autonomic Nervous System: Nerves controlling internal organs.
    • Sympathetic Nervous System: Arouses body for action (fight-or-flight).
    • Parasympathetic Nervous System: Calms the body.
    • Stress: Physiological and psychological response to stressors.
    • Stressor: Event or situation causing stress.
    • Neurons: Nerve cells handling information processing.
    • Glial Cells: Support and nourish neurons.
    • Soma: Cell body of a neuron.
    • Myelin Sheath: Fatty layer insulating axons.
    • Dendrites: Receive information.
    • Axon: Carries information away from the cell body.
    • Resting Potential: Stable negative charge of an inactive neuron.
    • Action Potential: Brief wave of positive electrical charge.
    • All-or-None Principle: Action potential fires completely or not at all.
    • Synapses: Gaps between neurons.
    • Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers across synapses.

    Sensory and Perceptual Processes

    • Sensory Receptors: Specialized cells detecting stimulus information.
    • Absolute Threshold: Minimum stimulus energy detectable.
    • Difference Threshold: Minimum difference detectable.
    • Weber's Law: Difference must be a constant percentage for detection.
    • Signal Detection Theory: Decision-making about stimuli under uncertainty.
    • Perceptual Set: Predisposition to perceive in a specific way.
    • Sensory Adaptation: Change in sensory system's responsiveness.

    The Eye and Vision

    • Sclera: White outer part of the eye.
    • Iris: Colored part regulating pupil size.
    • Pupil: Opening in the center of the iris.
    • Cornea: Clear membrane in front of the eye.
    • Lens: Transparent structure focusing light.
    • Retina: Light-sensitive surface.
    • Rods: Receptor cells for light detection; not color.
    • Cones: Receptor cells for color vision.
    • Optic Nerve: Carries visual information to the brain.

    The Ear and Hearing

    • Outer Ear: Collects sound waves.
    • Middle Ear: Transmits vibrations.
    • Inner Ear: Converts vibrations to neural impulses.
    • Cochlea: Fluid-filled structure in the inner ear.
    • Basilar Membrane: Structure in the cochlea that vibrates to sound frequencies.
    • Place Theory: Different frequencies vibrate different parts of the basilar membrane.
    • Frequency Theory: Perception of a sound's frequency depends on the firing rate of the auditory nerve.
    • Volley Principle: Nerve cells fire in rapid succession.

    Other Senses

    • Cutaneous Senses: Touch, temperature, pain.
    • Thermoreceptors: Sensory nerve endings detecting temperature.
    • Pain: Warning of body damage.
    • Smell and Taste: Chemical senses.
    • Kinesthetic Senses: Provide information about movement and posture.
    • Vestibular Sense: Provides information about balance and movement.

    Consciousness

    • Consciousness: Awareness of external events and internal sensations.
    • Theory of Mind: Understanding that others have thoughts and feelings.
    • Stream of Consciousness: Continuous flow of changing thoughts and feelings.
    • Controlled Processes: Alert states requiring focus.
    • Automatic Processes: States requiring little attention.

    Sleep

    • Biological Rhythms: Periodic physiological fluctuations.
    • Circadian Rhythms: Daily cycles affecting sleep-wake.
    • REM Sleep: Active sleep with dreaming.

    Learning

    • Learning: Relatively permanent behavioral change due to experience.
    • Behaviorism: Focuses on observable behaviors, discounting internal processes.
    • Classical Conditioning: Learning through association.
    • Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences of behavior.
    • Observational Learning: Learning by observing others.

    Memory

    • Memory: Retention of information over time.
    • Encoding: Information entering memory.
    • Storage: Retention of information over time.
    • Retrieval: Accessing stored information.
    • Sensory Memory: Brief, initial recording of sensory information.
    • Short-Term Memory: Temporary storage of limited capacity.
    • Working Memory: Active use of short-term memory.
    • Long-Term Memory: Relatively permanent storage.
    • Explicit Memory: Conscious recollection of information.
    • Episodic Memory: Memories of personal events.
    • Semantic Memory: General knowledge.
    • Implicit Memory: Unconscious influence of prior experience.

    Cognition

    • Cognition: Mental processes involved in knowing.
    • Concepts: Mental categories to group objects and events.
    • Problem-Solving: Finding solutions to goals.
    • Reasoning: Transforming information to reach conclusions.
    • Decision Making: Evaluating alternatives and choosing among them.

    Intelligence

    • Intelligence: Ability to learn, solve problems, and adapt.
    • Validity: Extent to which a test measures what it intends to measure.
    • Reliability: Consistency of a test's results.
    • Standardization: Developing uniform test procedures.

    Language

    • Language: Form of communication using symbols.
    • Phonology: Sound system of a language.
    • Morphology: Word formation rules.
    • Syntax: Sentence structure rules.
    • Semantics: Word and sentence meaning.
    • Pragmatics: Language's communicative function.

    Motivation and Emotion

    • Motivation: Processes starting, directing, and continuing actions.
    • Extrinsic Motivation: Performing actions for external rewards.
    • Intrinsic Motivation: Performing actions for internal satisfaction.
    • Instincts: Innate, biologically determined behaviors.
    • Drive-Reduction Theory: Behavior motivated by physiological needs.
    • Incentive Approaches: Behavior motivated by external stimuli.
    • Emotion: Feeling aspect of consciousness.
    • James-Lange Theory: Physiological response precedes emotion.
    • Cannon-Bard Theory: Physiological response and emotion occur simultaneously.
    • Schachter-Singer/Two-Factor Theory: Emotion depends on physical arousal and cognitive interpretation.

    Personality

    • Personality: Relatively stable patterns of emotions, motives, and behavior.
    • Trait Theories: Focus on relatively stable personality characteristics.
    • Psychodynamic Theories: Emphasize unconscious motives and conflicts.
    • Humanistic Theories: Emphasize free will and personal growth.

    Social Psychology

    • Social Psychology: Studies how people think about, influence, and relate to one another.
    • Attribution Theory: How we explain others' behavior.
    • Fundamental Attribution Error: Tendency to overestimate dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors.
    • Attitudes: Feelings, often based on beliefs, that influence reactions.
    • Conformity: Adjusting behavior to group norms.
    • Social Influence: How thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others.
    • Group Processes: How groups influence individuals.
    • Prejudice and Discrimination: Negative attitudes and behaviors toward groups.
    • Aggression: Behavior intended to hurt or destroy.
    • Conflict: Perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.
    • Social Relations: Attraction, helping, conflict.

    Abnormal Psychology

    • Abnormal Behavior: Deviant, maladaptive, or personally distressful behavior.
    • Medical Model: Mental illness as a physical disorder.
    • DSM-5: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.
    • Anxiety Disorders: Characterized by anxiety, tension, and apprehensive thoughts.
    • Depressive Disorders: Characterized by persistent sadness and loss of pleasure.
    • Bipolar Disorders: Characterized by extreme mood shifts between depression and mania.
    • Dissociative Disorders: Disruptions in memory or identity.
    • Schizophrenia: Severe mental disorder characterized by distorted thoughts, perceptions, and emotions.
    • Personality Disorders: Maladaptive, enduring patterns of behavior and inner experience.
    • Clinical Psychology: Science and theory to prevent and treat psychological disorders.

    Developmental Psychology

    • Developmental Psychology: Studies physical, cognitive, and social changes across the lifespan.
    • Prenatal Stages: Zygote, embryo, fetus.
    • Attachment: Strong emotional bond between child and caregiver.
    • Piaget's Stages: Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational.
    • Erikson's Stages: Psychosocial development across the lifespan.
    • Adolescence: Period between puberty and adulthood.

    Therapy

    • Psychotherapy: Non-medical process to help address psychological problems.
    • Biological Therapies: Treatments altering body functioning to reduce symptoms.
    • Empirically Supported Treatments: Therapies supported by research evidence.
    • Therapeutic Alliance: Trust and understanding between therapist and client.

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    Description

    This quiz explores key concepts related to psychoactive drugs, hypnosis, and foundational psychological theories. It covers topics such as the effects of drugs, cognitive theories of dreaming, and principles of psychology like functionalism and structuralism. Test your understanding of these essential ideas in psychology.

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