Psychology Chapter on Motivation

Motivation is the force that initiates, guides, and sustains goal-oriented behavior. It's the 'why' behind our actions.

Intrinsic motivation stems from internal rewards like enjoyment, satisfaction, or a sense of accomplishment, while extrinsic motivation is driven by external rewards like money, praise, or grades.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs suggests that humans are motivated by a series of needs, arranged in a pyramid: physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. Lower-level needs must be met before higher-level needs become motivators.

Drive-reduction theory posits that a need creates a drive to reduce that need and return to a state of homeostasis. We are motivated to reduce discomfort and seek balance.

Incentive theory states that we are motivated by the expectation and anticipation of rewards or desirable outcomes. External incentives pull us towards certain actions.

Overjustification effect describes the phenomenon where offering external rewards for an already enjoyable activity can decrease intrinsic motivation. Rewards can sometimes undermine internal motivation.

Motivational interviewing is a client-centered approach to communication that helps people explore their own motivations for change. It focuses on building rapport, eliciting self-motivation, and supporting autonomy.

Stress is a psychological and physiological response to perceived threats or demands. It involves a complex interplay of thoughts, feelings, and physical reactions.

The forces that drive our actions towards specific goals.

Motivation stemming from internal factors like personal satisfaction and growth.

Motivation fueled by external factors such as rewards or punishments.

The feeling of having control over your actions and decisions.

The desire to improve your skills and knowledge.

The sense of contributing to something bigger than yourself.

External rewards that entice us to act.

Negative consequences that discourage certain actions.

Positive reinforcement that encourages behaviors.

The process of increasing a behavior by following it with a positive consequence.

The process of decreasing a behavior by following it with a negative consequence.

The idea that our motivations often involve a mix of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors.

A theory that suggests intrinsic motivation may not be as negatively impacted by extrinsic rewards as previously believed.

Extrinsic rewards, like money or praise, can decrease intrinsic motivation if they are expected. But if the reward is unexpected, it might not harm intrinsic motivation.

Verbal praise, unlike tangible rewards, has been shown to possibly boost intrinsic motivation.

Individual differences, like self-esteem and self-efficacy, influence how effective extrinsic motivators are. For example, someone with low self-esteem may need more external encouragement.

Culture shapes how motivation works. In collectivist cultures, helping family is common because group needs are prioritized.

Motivational Interviewing (MI) is a communication approach used to guide individuals towards change by focusing on their internal motivations.

MI's goal is to help people find their own reasons to change, rather than imposing external pressures.

MI is built on partnership and respect between the therapist and the client, emphasizing autonomy and responsibility.

During MI, therapists explore the client's reasons for change, confidence in change, and challenges.

MI uses reflective listening, empathy, and highlighting discrepancies to help clients recognize their own motivations.

MI encourages clients to see the gap between their current behaviors and their desired health goals.

MI adapts to resistance, validating the client's feelings and avoiding forceful persuasion.

MI aims to understand the client's personal reasons for change and builds on those motivations.

MI supports self-efficacy by encouraging clients to believe in their ability to change and fostering commitment.

MI emphasizes the client's own experiences and success stories to strengthen self-belief and motivation.

MI avoids imposing advice, instead guiding clients to discover their own solutions.

A physiological state triggered when there's an imbalance within the body, like low blood sugar, which prompts a drive to seek out and consume food to restore balance.

A psychological state that guides behavior toward fulfilling a physiological need. It arises from imbalances in the body and motivates actions to restore homeostasis.

A regular pattern of behavior that we're more likely to repeat when confronted with a similar drive. Formed through successful reduction of a drive state.

The theory that explains motivation by the body's drive to maintain a stable internal state, or homeostasis. It proposes that imbalances trigger needs, which generate psychological drive states that direct behavior to restore balance.

The tendency of a biological system to maintain a steady, balanced, and optimal internal state. It's crucial for maintaining life and health.

The level of alertness, engagement, and activation in a person. Individuals strive to maintain an optimal level for effective performance.

An arousal theory that suggests individuals seek out stimulation when under-aroused and seek to reduce arousal when over-aroused to maintain an optimal level.

The proposition that individuals strive to find an optimal level of arousal for optimal performance on a given task. Performance tends to suffer when arousal is too low or too high.

The optimal arousal level for optimal performance varies based on the complexity of the task. Simple tasks benefit from higher arousal, while complex tasks require lower levels.

The concept that the feeling of excitement and activation can be used to motivate behavior, making it more engaging and enjoyable.

A state characterized by a lack of motivation, boredom, and a desire for some form of stimulation. Often occurs when arousal levels are too low.

A state characterized by feeling overwhelmed, anxious, and stressed, hindering performance. Happens when arousal levels are too high.

The drive to reduce discomfort and restore balance within the body, which serves as a primary motivator for behavior.

A state of balance within the body, where physiological and psychological needs are met. Drive theory proposes that this is the ultimate goal of motivation.

A way of understanding motivation that emphasizes the role of internal needs and drives in shaping behavior. It provides a framework for understanding the role of homeostasis and balance in motivation.

The Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) measures the amount of stress in a person's life based on significant life events.

The SRRS assumes that all life events are stressful regardless of their desirability. This means that both positive and negative events are assumed to be equally stressful.

The SRRS doesn't consider individual appraisals of life events, which is a key component of stress.

Daily hassles are minor annoyances that are part of everyday life. They are often less impactful than major life events, but can add up and contribute to stress.

Daily hassles are a better predictor of both physical and psychological health than are major life events.

Cyber hassles refer to stressful situations that occur on social media platforms, such as cyberbullying, cyberstalking, or online harassment.

Job strain is a work situation that combines excessive job demands and workload with little control over decision-making or job control. It can have negative consequences on physical and mental health.

Stressful jobs often involve heavy workloads with limited job control, potentially leading to burnout. Examples include factory workers, postal clerks, and taxi drivers.

Job burnout refers to a state of emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and detachment from work. It is often experienced by those in human services jobs.

Job burnout is defined as feeling exhausted, emotionally detached from work, and having a negative attitude towards work.

Job burnout is common among professions that involve frequent interactions with people, such as social workers, teachers, and therapists.

The SRRS is a valuable tool to identify potential stress-related health outcomes despite its limitations.

Daily hassles and job strain are both significant contributors to stress and can impact physical and mental well-being.

Understanding the different types of stressors and their potential impact on our health is crucial for managing stress effectively.

Our ability to perform a task is linked to arousal level. Tasks require a specific arousal level for optimal performance - too high, and we are overwhelmed; too low, and we are unmotivated.

The optimal level of arousal for easy tasks is higher than for difficult tasks.

This is the need to fulfill one's potential and achieve personal growth. It's about reaching your full potential and being the best you can be.

It's a need to feel safe, secure, and stable. It involves feeling protected from threats and having a sense of order and predictability.

These needs are about feeling a sense of belonging, love, and connection with others. Being part of a community and having close relationships.

These needs are about feeling valued and respected by oneself and others, having confidence and a sense of achievement.

Maslow's theory suggests that we can only focus on higher needs once the lower ones are met. You can't be concerned about self-actualization if you're struggling to find food and shelter.

This theory has been criticized for being subjective and not fully accounting for real-world experiences.

Maslow later proposed a level above self-actualization, focusing on seeking meaning and purpose beyond oneself.

The work environment has its own hierarchy related to professional needs. Employees may focus on safety, belonging, esteem, and self-actualization within their roles.

This type of care considers all aspects of a person's well-being - not just physical needs, but also psychological, emotional, and social needs.

Prioritizing needs in nursing care follows Maslow's hierarchy. Meeting basic needs like safety and physiological needs are essential before addressing higher levels.

Constraints are limitations or obstacles that prevent someone from doing what they want, while demands represent the loss of something desired.

Stressors are situations or events that trigger a stress response. They can be chronic, lasting over a long period, or acute, happening suddenly and intensely.

Chronic stressors are prolonged and ongoing, like caring for a sick parent or managing a chronic illness. Acute stressors are sudden and brief, like a car accident or a job interview.

Traumatic events are major stressors that involve actual or threatened death or serious injury. These can include war, assault, natural disasters, and other situations involving extreme threat.

Life changes, even positive ones, can be stressful. They require adjustments to daily routines and can disrupt our sense of normalcy.

The Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) quantifies life events based on how much adjustment they require. It suggests that accumulating many life changes within a short period can lead to stress and health problems.

Eustress is a positive form of stress that motivates and challenges us, while distress is a negative form of stress that overwhelms and harms us.

Coping mechanisms are strategies we use to manage stress and reduce its negative effects.

Stress management techniques aim to reduce the impact of stress on our health and well-being.

Mindfulness involves focusing on the present moment without judgment. It helps us be more aware of our thoughts and feelings, and respond to stress more effectively.

Exercise can help relieve stress by releasing endorphins, improving mood, and reducing anxiety.

Social support networks play a crucial role in stress management. Strong relationships can provide comfort, understanding, and practical help during stressful times.

Sleep is essential for stress management. Adequate sleep allows our bodies and minds to recover from stress, improves our mood, and enhances our ability to cope.

Stress can have a significant impact on our health. Prolonged stress can contribute to various health problems, including heart disease, depression, and weakened immune system.

A state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion caused by prolonged stress and overwork, often characterized by a shift from positive and caring to negative and unconcerned.

The body's natural response to stressful situations, involving the release of hormones like adrenaline and cortisol, preparing the body to either fight or flee.

The three stages of the body's stress response: Alarm (initial reaction), Resistance (coping mechanisms), and Exhaustion (when coping resources are depleted).

The initial stage of the GAS, characterized by physical reactions like increased heart rate, dilated pupils, and muscle tension.

The second stage of the GAS, where the body actively tries to cope with the stressor, using energy and resources to resist its effects.

The final stage of the GAS, where the body's coping resources become depleted, leading to physical and mental exhaustion.

The experience of feeling overwhelmed by demands, leading to negative emotions like anxiety, fear, and anger.

A type of stress that is ongoing and chronic, leading to potential health problems like high blood pressure and depression.

A person who provides care for someone with an illness, injury, or disability.

The collection of changes that occur in the body and mind when stress is present, involving hormone surges and physiological responses.

Symptoms of stress can vary greatly among individuals, but often include physical, emotional, and behavioral changes.

The feeling of being overwhelmed by the demands of caregiving.

Strategies to manage and reduce the negative effects of stress, such as exercise, relaxation techniques, and support systems.

The tendency to evaluate one's work experience negatively, feeling dissatisfied with accomplishments and lacking a sense of contribution.

The feeling of powerlessness and exhaustion, leading to apathy, cynicism, and withdrawal from work or other activities.

These are feelings of tension, worry, and emotional distress caused by stress.

These are physical reactions to stress such as headaches, muscle tension, and sleep problems.

These are changes in thinking and memory caused by stress.

These are changes in behavior caused by stress.

Stress hormones like cortisol are released, causing your body to go into 'fight or flight' mode. This increases heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar levels.

Long-term stress can lead to serious health problems, such as depression, heart disease, and obesity.

These are diseases or disorders where psychological factors worsen or cause physical symptoms.

These are examples of psychophysiological disorders, which are physical illnesses often caused by psychological factors like stress.

This is the body's defense system against illness that fights off bacteria, viruses, and other harmful invaders.

Sometimes the immune system attacks healthy cells, leading to autoimmune disorders like rheumatoid arthritis and lupus.

The immune system can also become weak, making the body susceptible to various infections.

Research shows that stress can negatively affect the immune system, making people more vulnerable to illness.

Long-lasting stress can cause wear and tear on the body, leading to health problems like heart disease.

High levels of the stress hormone cortisol can weaken the immune system, making the body more susceptible to infections.

Psychoneuroimmunology is a field of study exploring the connection between psychological factors, the nervous system, and the immune system.

The discovery of a link between the central nervous system and the immune system led to the development of this field.

This experiment showed that immune responses could be learned through classical conditioning.

Many types of stressors, including public speaking, exams, and major life events, can weaken the immune system.

The sympathetic nervous system connects the brain to immune organs like the thymus, bone marrow, and spleen, influencing immune response.

Stress hormones released during HPA axis activation can inhibit the production of lymphocytes, crucial cells for immune responses.

People under chronic stress are more susceptible to developing colds after exposure to a cold virus.

Caring for a spouse with Alzheimer's disease can lead to poorer antibody responses after vaccination.

Stress can slow down wound healing by impairing immune responses critical for tissue repair.

The effect of stress on child development depends on factors like stress duration and the child's coping abilities.

Everyday stress can help children build coping skills and doesn't pose significant risks to development.

Children can manage even prolonged stressful events like school changes or losing a loved one, with appropriate support.

Psychoneuroimmunology studies how psychological factors like stress influence the immune system and immune functioning.

Psychoneuroimmunology is a relatively new field that emerged from the discovery of a connection between the brain and the immune system.

Classical conditioning can alter immunity, demonstrating the impact of psychological factors on the immune system.

Stress that is short-lived, intense, but can be overcome with support. Examples include family disruptions or the death of a loved one.

Stress that is chronic and excessive, exceeding a child's coping abilities, especially without adult support. It can damage body and brain systems, leading to long-term health issues.

The ability to withstand and adapt to stressful experiences, often boosted by supportive adults.

The hormone released during stress, which can have negative effects when consistently elevated, especially in children.

Experiences that are brief, mild to moderate, and buffered by supportive adults. They promote resilience and are considered beneficial.

A type of discrimination that occurs subtly, often in everyday interactions, making it hard to pinpoint or address.

The idea that repeated exposure to discrimination can lead to a heightened stress response, making individuals more sensitive to future stressful events.

The tendency to perceive events as uncontrollable, persistent, and unpredictable, often leading to increased stress and negative health outcomes.

Strategies that help buffer the negative effects of stress, such as social support, healthy coping mechanisms, and mindfulness.

Repeated experiences of discrimination that can have a significant impact on mental and physical health, leading to stress, anxiety, and even physical health problems.