Psychology Chapter on Memory

Memory

• Memory is an active system that stores, organizes, alters, and receives information.
• Memory retains learned things and experiences, but is selective.
• Information Processing Theory of Memory:
  • Encoding: Getting information into memory.
  • Storage: Retaining encoded information.
  • Retrieval: Accessing stored information.
• Errors can occur at any stage, resulting in forgetting.

Simplified Model of Memory

• Sensory Memory: Briefly holds an exact copy of sensory input.
  • Iconic Memory: Visual sensory memory (½ second).
  • Echoic Memory: Auditory sensory memory.
• Short-Term (Working) Memory: Conscious, limited capacity (approx. 7 bits) for short durations (20-30 seconds).
  • Easily disrupted.
• Encoding Methods:
  • Effortful Processing: Consciously encoding information (e.g., rehearsal).
  • Automatic Processing: Encoding with little effort (e.g., time, events).

Encoding Position in a List

• Serial Position Effect: Easier to encode first and last items in a list.
  • Primary Effect: Better recall of early items.
  • Recency Effect: Better recall of recent items.
  • Middle items need more rehearsal.

Ebbinghaus's Forgetting and Retention

• Ebbinghaus Curve of Forgetting: Forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off.
• Ebbinghaus Retention Curve/Spacing Effect: Distributed practice yields better long-term retention than massed practice.

Interference

• Interference: Learning some items can disrupt the consolidation of others.
  • Proactive Interference: Earlier learning disrupts later learning.
  • Retroactive Interference: Later learning disrupts earlier learning.

Encoding Specificity

• Encoding specificity principle: Retrieval improves when the retrieval context matches the encoding context.
• Mood-Congruent Memory: Recalling memories that match current mood.
• State-Dependent Learning: Recalling information best when in the same physiological state as during encoding.

Long-Term Memory

• Long-Term Memory: Stores vast amounts of information for long periods (unknown duration.)
• Stored based on meaning and importance.
• Long-Term Potentiation: Strengthening of neural pathways due to repeated use.
  • Neurons that fire together wire together.
• Network Model: Related ideas stored in interconnected nodes.
• Memory Redintegration: Reconstructing memories by associating related ideas.

Constructive Processing

• Constructive Processing: Updating memories based on logic, guesses, or new information.
• Misinformation Effect: Misremembering due to misleading information or suggestions.
• Pseudo-memories: False memories.
• Flashbulb Memories: Vivid, detailed memories of significant events.

Explicit vs. Implicit Memory

• Explicit Memory: Conscious memories of facts (semantic) and experiences (episodic).
• Implicit Memory: Procedural memories (skills) unconsciously known.

Recall, Recognition, Retrieval Cues

• Recall: Retrieving information without cues.
• Recognition: Identifying information with cues.
• Retrieval Cues: Information encoded at the same time as the target information.
• Priming: Activating related memories.

Retrieval Failure

• Forgetting can result from retrieval failure.

Improving Memory

• Methods to improve memory are mentioned but not detailed.

Three Basic Elements of Cognition

• Mental images, mental concepts, and language.

Thinking in Mental Concepts

• Schemas (Piaget): Generalized ideas about objects or events.
• Prototypes: Best examples of a concept.

Solving Problems

• Insight: Sudden realization of a solution.
• Obstacles: Framing, functional fixedness, belief perseverance.
• Problem-solving Strategies
  • Trial and error
  • Algorithm
  • Heuristics: Representative and availability heuristics

Patterns of Thought

• Inductive, deductive.

Sternberg’s Components of Creativity

• Expertise, imaginative thinking skills, venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, and creative environment

Convergent vs. Divergent Thinking

• Convergent Thinking: Finding a single solution.
• Divergent Thinking: Generating many possible solutions.

Language

• Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis: Language shapes thought and perception.
• Components of Language:
  • Phoneme: Smallest unit of sound.
  • Morpheme: Smallest unit of meaning.
  • Grammar: Rules for combining words.
  • Syntax: Rules for sentence structure.
  • Semantics: Criteria for meaning.

Language and The Brain

• Broca's Area: Speech production.
• Wernicke's Area: Speech comprehension

Theories of Language Acquisition

• Behavioral Theory: Language learned through conditioning.
• Nativist Theory: Humans have an innate ability to learn language.
  • Language Acquisition Devices (LAD)
  • Critical period for language acquisition.

Language Components

• Surface Structure: Words and phrases of a sentence.
• Deep Structure: Underlying meaning of a sentence.

This quiz covers the key concepts of memory, including the information processing theory. Learn about different types of memory, such as sensory, short-term, and various encoding methods. Test your understanding of how memory functions and the potential for errors in encoding, storage, and retrieval.