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Questions and Answers
What chemical is released in the brain during positive reinforcement?
What chemical is released in the brain during positive reinforcement?
What is the main function of sensory memory?
What is the main function of sensory memory?
Statistical learning is the ability to learn patterns and irregularities in the environment.
Statistical learning is the ability to learn patterns and irregularities in the environment.
False
What is perceptual learning?
What is perceptual learning?
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Short-term memory can hold information for about 30 seconds.
Short-term memory can hold information for about 30 seconds.
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In operant conditioning, behaviors are influenced by __________ and punishments.
In operant conditioning, behaviors are influenced by __________ and punishments.
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What is the process of transforming short-term memories into long-term memories called?
What is the process of transforming short-term memories into long-term memories called?
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Long-term memory can potentially store information for a ______.
Long-term memory can potentially store information for a ______.
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Match the types of learning with their definitions:
Match the types of learning with their definitions:
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Which type of memory allows us to perform tasks automatically, like riding a bike?
Which type of memory allows us to perform tasks automatically, like riding a bike?
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Which brain area is NOT associated with positive reinforcement?
Which brain area is NOT associated with positive reinforcement?
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Children learn language solely through rote memorization.
Children learn language solely through rote memorization.
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Match the following memory types with their characteristics:
Match the following memory types with their characteristics:
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Flashbulb memories are always completely accurate.
Flashbulb memories are always completely accurate.
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What happens to brain connections as children learn new skills?
What happens to brain connections as children learn new skills?
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Which brain region is crucial for forming new long-term memories?
Which brain region is crucial for forming new long-term memories?
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What is the primary function of the lateral interpositus nucleus (LIP)?
What is the primary function of the lateral interpositus nucleus (LIP)?
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The red nucleus is responsible for storing memories related to classical conditioning.
The red nucleus is responsible for storing memories related to classical conditioning.
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What type of conditioning involves learning behaviors through rewards and punishments?
What type of conditioning involves learning behaviors through rewards and punishments?
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In a Skinner box, an animal can press a lever to receive food as a form of __________.
In a Skinner box, an animal can press a lever to receive food as a form of __________.
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Which of the following describes positive reinforcement?
Which of the following describes positive reinforcement?
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Match the type of reinforcement or punishment with its definition:
Match the type of reinforcement or punishment with its definition:
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Intermittent reinforcement means reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs.
Intermittent reinforcement means reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs.
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Who created the experimental setup known as the Skinner box?
Who created the experimental setup known as the Skinner box?
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What does the 'hard problem' of consciousness primarily address?
What does the 'hard problem' of consciousness primarily address?
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Aphantasia is the ability to visualize images in one's mind.
Aphantasia is the ability to visualize images in one's mind.
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What technique involves using a strong visual stimulus to decrease awareness of a steady stimulus?
What technique involves using a strong visual stimulus to decrease awareness of a steady stimulus?
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The _____ state refers to a condition in which patients show minimal awareness and can have sleep-wake cycles.
The _____ state refers to a condition in which patients show minimal awareness and can have sleep-wake cycles.
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Match the following terms with their correct definitions:
Match the following terms with their correct definitions:
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Which method presents a brief stimulus followed by a longer one to obscure awareness?
Which method presents a brief stimulus followed by a longer one to obscure awareness?
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Social exclusion has been shown to activate brain areas associated with emotional pain.
Social exclusion has been shown to activate brain areas associated with emotional pain.
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What is the definition of the 'pain of exclusion'?
What is the definition of the 'pain of exclusion'?
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What is the primary neurotransmitter involved in the chemical imbalance theory of depression?
What is the primary neurotransmitter involved in the chemical imbalance theory of depression?
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Hypersomnia is characterized by difficulty sleeping.
Hypersomnia is characterized by difficulty sleeping.
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What type of therapy helps change negative thought patterns and behaviors in individuals with depression?
What type of therapy helps change negative thought patterns and behaviors in individuals with depression?
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The _____ gene is linked to serotonin transport and affects mood regulation.
The _____ gene is linked to serotonin transport and affects mood regulation.
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Which type of antidepressant increases levels of both serotonin and norepinephrine?
Which type of antidepressant increases levels of both serotonin and norepinephrine?
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Exercise can help improve mood and reduce symptoms of depression.
Exercise can help improve mood and reduce symptoms of depression.
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Match the following bipolar disorder types with their characteristics:
Match the following bipolar disorder types with their characteristics:
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Good sleep hygiene and addressing sleep problems can help improve mood and overall __________.
Good sleep hygiene and addressing sleep problems can help improve mood and overall __________.
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Which of the following genes is specifically linked to an increased risk of schizophrenia?
Which of the following genes is specifically linked to an increased risk of schizophrenia?
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Individuals with a family history of schizophrenia are less likely to develop the disorder if raised in a different environment.
Individuals with a family history of schizophrenia are less likely to develop the disorder if raised in a different environment.
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What is the proposed role of a maternal infection during pregnancy on the risk of schizophrenia?
What is the proposed role of a maternal infection during pregnancy on the risk of schizophrenia?
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The ______________ Hypothesis suggests that abnormalities in brain development during early life can lead to schizophrenia.
The ______________ Hypothesis suggests that abnormalities in brain development during early life can lead to schizophrenia.
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What does the Two-Hit Hypothesis refer to in the context of schizophrenia?
What does the Two-Hit Hypothesis refer to in the context of schizophrenia?
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Match the factors related to schizophrenia with their descriptions:
Match the factors related to schizophrenia with their descriptions:
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What is a common side effect of 1st generation antipsychotics?
What is a common side effect of 1st generation antipsychotics?
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Urban living has no influence on the risk of developing schizophrenia.
Urban living has no influence on the risk of developing schizophrenia.
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Study Notes
Classical Conditioning
- Definition: A learning process where a person or animal learns to associate one stimulus with another. First studied by Ivan Pavlov.
- Pavlov's Experiment: Pavlov observed dogs salivating at the sight of food. When a bell was rung before the food, the dogs eventually began salivating at the sound of the bell alone. The bell became associated with food as a conditioned stimulus.
- Extinction/Desensitization: Extinction occurs when the conditioned response fades away if the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., ringing the bell without showing food). Desensitization is a therapy technique where a person is gradually exposed to a fear-inducing stimulus without negative consequences to reduce fear over time.
- Learning through Association: Pavlov proposed that learning occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, which triggers a conditioned response.
Engrams
- Physical Memory Traces: Engrams are the physical changes in the brain that represent memories. They are thought to be the actual spots in the brain where memories are stored.
- Lashley's Research: Karl Lashley's experiments concluded that memories are not confined to a specific brain location. His experiments involved cutting parts of rats' brains to see where their memories were stored.
- Equipotentiality: This principle suggests that all parts of the brain can contribute to learning. If one part is damaged, other parts can take over its function.
Mass Action
- Whole Brain Function: This principle states that the brain operates as a whole. The more brain tissue available, the better the learning and memory. Learning is a collective process, involving multiple areas of the brain.
- Thompson's Research: Richard Thompson's research suggests a specific brain area, the lateral interpositus nucleus (LIP) within the cerebellum is crucial for learning conditioned responses (like eye-blinking).
LIP vs. Red Nucleus
- LIP (Lateral Interpositus Nucleus): Critical for learning and storing memories related to classical conditioning.
- Red Nucleus: Involved in executing learned responses, like blinking, however, the memory itself isn't stored there.
Operant Conditioning
- Definition: Learning where behavior is controlled by consequences (rewards and punishments) to increase or decrease behavior.
- Skinner Box: A controlled environment to study operant conditioning. An animal (rat or pigeon) learns to perform actions like pressing a lever to receive rewards or avoid punishments.
- Positive Reinforcement: Adding something desirable to increase a behavior (e.g., treat for a dog sitting).
- Negative Reinforcement: Removing something undesirable to increase a behavior (e.g., turning off loud noise when a rat presses a lever).
- Positive Punishment: Adding something undesirable to decrease a behavior (e.g., a timeout for misbehaving).
- Negative Punishment: Removing something desirable to decrease a behavior (e.g., taking a toy away when a child misbehaves).
Neural Basis of Positive Reinforcement
- Brain's Reward System: Positive reinforcement activates pleasure and reward areas (like the nucleus accumbens and the ventral tegmental area) releasing dopamine, which reinforces the behavior.
Statistical Learning
- Definition: The ability to learn patterns and regularities in the environment.
- Language Example: Children learn language by noticing which sounds occur together and what words are commonly used. This helps them understand and produce language.
Brain Changes During Development
- Neural Development: As children learn, new connections (synapses) are formed and unused connections are pruned away to make the brain more efficient at processing information.
Perceptual Learning
- Definition: The process of learning to recognize and interpret sensory information. It involves long-lasting changes in the brain's ability to respond to sensory stimuli based on experience, like learning to distinguish musical notes.
Relational Learning
- Definition: Understanding the relationships between different pieces of information. Examples include associating dogs with pets or learning that animals can be pets. Relational learning helps understand complex concepts and draw inferences.
Sensory Memory
- Definition: Brief storage of sensory information (sights, sounds etc.)—a holding area for sensory details. It lasts for a very short time, typically less than a second.
Short-Term/Working Memory
- Definition: Temporary storage and manipulation of information. Holds information for a short time (e.g., 18 seconds) and has a limited capacity (around 7 items). Working memory allows for manipulation and active use of information.
Long-Term Memory
- Definition: Long-term storage of information, potentially for a lifetime. It includes Explicit (a.k.a. Declarative) and Implicit memories.
- Explicit Memory: Memories that can be consciously recalled and described (a.k.a. Declarative). This includes Episodic (personal experiences) and Semantic (general knowledge).
- Implicit Memory: Memories we cannot consciously recall but that influence our behavior (e.g., procedural memory; riding a bike, typing).
- Flashbulb Memories: Vivid and detailed memories of significant events.
Memory in the Brain (Regions + Connectivity)
- Different brain regions are responsible for different types of memory functions and how those functions interconnect.
Hippocampus
- Key Role in Memory: Essential for forming new long-term memories, especially spatial memories (remembering locations); consolidates memories from short-term to long-term storage.
- Visual Spatial Memory: Involved in remembering and navigating locations. Larger hippocampi are seen in taxi drivers due to extensive navigation experience.
- Place Cells/Time Cells: Specific neurons that respond to specific locations (place cells) or specific times (time cells) in the hippocampus.
- Grid Cells: Neurons in the entorhinal cortex that help with spatial navigation.
Basal Ganglia
- Role in Implicit Learning: Crucial for learning habits and motor skills (like riding a bike or playing an instrument).
Autobiographical Memory
- Personal Memory: A type of memory that includes personal experiences and events.
- Connectivity: Medial temporal lobe connects to other brain regions for processing semantic (general knowledge) versus episodic (personal experiences) memories with different connections.
Disorders of Memory
- Retrograde Amnesia: Inability to recall past memories.
- Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories.
- Infantile Amnesia: Inability to remember events from early childhood.
- Severely Deficient Autobiographical Memory (SDAM): Difficulty recalling personal experiences but can remember factual information.
- Aphantasia: Inability to create mental images.
- Korsakoff's Syndrome: A memory disorder caused by thiamine deficiency. Often related to alcoholism resulting in severe memory problems and confabulation (creating false memories to fill in memory gaps).
- Dementia: A decline in cognitive function, including memory loss; different types exist (e.g., semantic, frontotemporal).
Asymmetry of the Human Brain
- Lateralization: Each hemisphere has specialized functions. Left hemisphere associated with language and right hemisphere with spatial abilities.
- How Hemispheres Exchange Information: Communication between the two hemispheres occurs primarily through the corpus callosum, a bundle of nerve fibers.
Split Brain Patients
- Competition and cooperation: The two brain hemispheres can sometimes compete for control over actions in split brain patients, leading to unique behaviors.
Evolution of Language
- Language development theories: Various theories exist to explain how language evolved; some propose it developed from simple gestures while others propose language abilities are unique to humans.
Sensitive Period
- For language development: Critical time in early childhood, typically before age 7; when learning language is easiest. Children who are exposed to language during this critical time are more likely to become fluent.
Bilingualism
- Speaking two languages fluently: Language flexibility, potentially improves problem solving.
Aphasia
- Language disorders: Difficulty in communicating due to impairment of speech production, comprehension or both. Affected by brain damage.
Broca's Aphasia
- Non-fluent aphasia: Difficulty producing speech but may understand language.
- Speech is slow and effortful, composed of short phrases, omitting small words (e.g., "Tan").
Wernicke's Aphasia
- Fluent aphasia: Can produce fluid, long sentences, but the speech lacks meaning. Difficulty understanding language.
Academic Abilities
- Skills for learning and education; this includes different types of brain regions and areas as well as skills like reading and math.
- Reading Brain: Areas of the brain responsible for visual processing; language processing; sensory integration.
- Math Brain: Areas like parietal lobe (for number processing) and prefrontal cortex (problem-solving).
- Neuronal Recycling Hypothesis: The brain changes when new skills are learned. Regions of the brain originally used for an activity could be used differently for a new activity.
Retrieval vs. Calculation
- Retrieval: Recalling known facts.
- Calculation: Solving problems through stepwise calculations.
Dyscalculia
- Learning disorder affecting math abilities; number sense, calculation, and understanding concepts.
Consciousness
- Definition: Our awareness of ourselves and our environment.
- Hard Problem: Understanding conscious experience.
- Easy Problem: Exploring how the brain processes information.
Loss of Consciousness
- Definition: Disruption to awareness.
- Anesthesia: Procedure that temporarily blocks awareness and sensation (e.g., surgical procedures).
Attention
- Top-Down: Intentional focus.
- Bottom-up: Reaction to unexpected stimuli.
- Stroop Task: Examines interference of automatic processing with controlled processes.
Vegetative State Patients
- Minimal Awareness: Patients who may respond to stimuli minimally and/or not with full conscious awareness.
The Pain of Exclusion
- Emotional distress caused by social rejection or isolation.
Mental Illness
- Defines a spectrum of mental health conditions
- Myths about mental health conditions: such as people with mental illness are violent or dangerous, and mental illness is a sign of personal weakness, are unfounded.
Comorbidities
- Co-occurring conditions: Presence of more than one condition in one person (e.g., depressive disorders along with anxiety).
Major Depressive Disorder
- Persistent sadness and loss of interest.
Prevalence
- How common a mental illness(e.g., how many people experience the illness each year or over their lifetime).
Depression Symptoms
- List of many different symptom types for depression.
Genetic Underpinnings
- Possible role of genes in the development of depression.
Monoamine Hypothesis
- Low neurotransmitter levels are a theory of depression.
Antidepressants
- Medications that increase neurotransmitter levels (e.g., serotonin, Norepinephrine).
Bipolar Disorder
- Mood disorder with extreme mood swings (mania and depression).
Bipolar Subtypes
- Bipolar I: One or more manic episodes.
- Bipolar II: One or more manic episodes and depressive episodes.
- Cyclothymia: Milder, chronic mood swings.
Role of Monoamines
- Imbalances in neurotransmitters (like serotonin and dopamine) may be a factor in bipolar disorder.
Schizophrenia
- Severe mental disorder with distorted thinking, perceptions, emotions, and behavior.
Schizophrenia subtypes/types
- A variety of types or categories of schizophrenia related to the symptoms or characteristics of the illness.
Schizophrenia Studies
- Includes multiple research approaches
Genetics
- Possible role of genetics in the development of schizophrenia.
Prenatal Environment
- Possible role of prenatal factors (maternal infections during pregnancy) in the development of schizophrenia.
Environmental Influences
- Season-of-Birth: Some studies suggest a possible link between birth time and the development of schizophrenia.
- Other factors: Childhood trauma, urban living, and substance use influence schizophrenia risk.
Neural Abnormalities
- Structural changes in the brain (e.g., enlarged ventricles, reduced gray matter) are associated with schizophrenia.
Network Neuroscience
- Brain Connectivity (functional connectivity): How different regions of the brain communicate and the disruptions in these networks.
Dopamine Hypothesis
- Overactivity of dopamine in some brain regions is thought to play a role in the development of schizophrenia.
Glutamate Hypothesis
- Dysfunction in glutamate transmission (especially at NMDA receptors) may be involved in schizophrenia.
Antipsychotics
- Medications used to treat schizophrenia and/or other mental health conditions.
- 1st generation: Block dopamine receptors, but may have side effects
- 2nd generation: Affect dopamine and serotonin receptors, often with fewer side effects.
- 3rd generation: More precisely stabilize dopamine activity.
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Description
Explore the fascinating concepts of memory and learning in psychology. This quiz covers essential topics such as sensory memory, short-term and long-term memory, and the processes involved in positive reinforcement. Test your knowledge on different types of learning and the brain areas associated with memory functions.
