Psychology Chapter on Memory and Learning

A type of memory that includes factual knowledge and events, divided into episodic (personal experiences) and semantic (general knowledge)

A type of memory that is responsible for holding and manipulating information for immediate use in tasks like planning and problem solving

The process of transforming sensory information into a lasting memory representation

The process of moving a short-term memory into long-term storage, often through repeated practice or rehearsal

The process of reactivating and potentially modifying a consolidated memory, making it potentially less stable and susceptible to change

A brain region crucial for learning and storing procedural memories, which are essentially learned motor skills and habits

The strengthening or weakening of connections between neurons, often associated with learning and memory processes

A type of receptor involved in learning and memory processes, often associated with glutamate transmission in the brain

A type of glutamate receptor that only requires glutamate to be activated. It allows sodium ions to enter the neuron, causing depolarization.

A glutamate receptor that requires both glutamate and a depolarized membrane to be activated. Allows calcium ions to enter, triggering long-term changes in the synapse.

The ion that primarily enters the neuron through NMDA receptors. It plays a critical role in synaptic plasticity.

A process that weakens the connection between two neurons. It's like 'forgetting'.

A process that strengthens the connection between two neurons. It's like 'learning' or 'remembering'

The scientific study of language, including its structure, sounds, meaning, and use.

The variation in pitch, speed, and rhythm of speech that influences meaning and emotion. It's the 'music' of language.

A language disorder caused by brain damage, resulting in difficulty with speaking, writing, reading, and understanding language.

The process of converting one type of signal (e.g., light, sound) into an electrical signal that the brain can understand.

Specialized cells located in the olfactory epithelium that detect odorant molecules.

The primary olfactory cortex, responsible for processing smell information.

The area where olfactory nerve fibers synapse with neurons in the olfactory bulb.

The process by which taste receptors are activated by taste molecules.

Small, sensory organs on the tongue that contain taste receptors.

The process of converting one type of signal (e.g., light, sound) into an electrical signal that the brain can understand.

The influx of sodium (Na+) ions into a neuron, triggering an electrical signal.

Myelinated nerve fibers that transmit fast, sharp pain signals.

Non-myelinated nerve fibers that transmit slow, dull pain signals.

Endorphins are released into the spinal cord to modulate pain perception, reducing its intensity.

A genetic disorder where the body cannot feel pain, often caused by mutations in genes for sodium channels in nociceptors.

A sensory organ in the inner ear. It helps maintain balance by detecting changes in head position and movement.

The cranial nerve (VIII) that carries signals about balance and hearing from inner ear.

A sudden feeling of dizziness without movement, often caused by calcium crystals shifting in the inner ear.

Photoreceptor cells in the retina, where light triggers chemical changes that start the visual signal.

A type of neuron that becomes active both when performing an action and when observing someone else perform the same action.

The cerebellum is a brain region essential for coordinating smooth and precise movements. Damage to this area often results in difficulty with fine motor control.

In the reflex circuit, the interneuron sends an inhibitory signal to the muscle to prevent it from contracting.

A biological rhythm that has an intrinsic period of approximately 24 hours, and is influenced but not entirely dependent on external cues.

A biological rhythm that is tightly regulated by external cues, such as light and dark cycles, with a period of approximately 24 hours.

The suprachiasmatic nucleus is a brain region located in the hypothalamus. It serves as the central pacemaker for circadian rhythms, controlling the body's natural sleep-wake cycle.

The naked mole rat is known for its exceptional resistance to disease and its ability to maintain a consistent circadian rhythm even with limited exposure to light cycles.

Melatonin is a hormone produced primarily in the pineal gland, and it promotes feelings of sleepiness. It is known as the 'sleep hormone'.

The main language areas of the brain are primarily located in the left hemisphere for most people. This is why studying language production and comprehension often reveals this specialization.

The critical period is a time frame during development, often studied in language, where the brain is exceptionally sensitive to environmental input. It's crucial for acquiring skills and abilities.

Upper motor neurons originate in the brain and send signals down the spinal cord to influence lower neurons, which directly control muscle movement. Think of them as the 'command center' for movement.

Lower motor neurons are located in the spinal cord and directly connect to muscle fibers, responsible for carrying signals out to trigger muscle contractions. They're the 'final messengers' for movement.

The basal ganglia and cerebellum are brain regions that influence the activity of upper motor neurons, helping to plan and coordinate movement. Think of them as the 'coaches' of the brain's motor system.

The somas of upper motor neurons are found in the primary motor cortex, while the somas of lower motor neurons reside in the spinal cord. They work in a hierarchical system to control movement.

Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter released at the neuromuscular junction, the connection between nerves and muscles, causing muscle fibers to contract. Think of it as the 'chemical message' that triggers muscle action.

Reflexes are automatic, involuntary responses to stimuli that don't require input from the brain. Think of them as quick and automatic actions, bypassing conscious control.

Antagonistic muscle pairs work in opposition to each other, like the hamstring and quadricep. One extends, the other flexes, allowing for controlled movement.