Psychology Chapter on Learning and Conditioning

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Questions and Answers

Which reinforcement schedule is characterized by a steady rate of response and consistency over time?

Variable-Ratio

Variable-Interval (correct)

Fixed-Ratio

Fixed-Interval

What is the primary effect of continuous reinforcement on behavior?

Accelerates extinction of behavior (correct)

Enhances persistence of behavior

Results in variable response rates

Increases the rate of behavior

Which term describes the phenomenon where a response is reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus but not in its absence?

Discrimination (correct)

Shaping

Generalization

Reinforcement

In shaping behavior, what is the first step that should be taken?

Reinforce any behavior similar to the desired one Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly illustrates a biological constraint on learning?

Pigs struggle to learn picking up a disk due to their instinct to push objects. Signup and view all the answers

What type of schedule results in fast and persistent response but is highly resistant to extinction?

Variable-Ratio Signup and view all the answers

What is the scalloping effect associated with?

Fixed-Interval schedule Signup and view all the answers

Which process allows for the learning of responses to similar stimuli based on prior experience?

Generalization Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential negative outcome associated with classical conditioning?

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?

The increase of a conditioned response after a break Signup and view all the answers

What is extinction in the context of classical conditioning?

The weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response Signup and view all the answers

Which of these scenarios exemplifies the application of classical conditioning in drug addiction?

Addicts connecting drug paraphernalia with pleasant drug effects Signup and view all the answers

What type of memories can classical conditioning positively evoke?

Fondness for scents tied to positive memories Signup and view all the answers

Little Albert's outcome in classical conditioning is characterized by which of the following?

Speculation and uncertainty about his outcomes Signup and view all the answers

What is one consequence of high levels of media violence on viewers?

Increased aggression Signup and view all the answers

Which organization recommends minimizing children's exposure to violent media?

American Pediatric Association Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a positive outcome of classical conditioning?

Drug addiction Signup and view all the answers

What effect can real-life exposure to violence have on individuals?

Increase in aggression Signup and view all the answers

What role does extinction play in managing fears or negative associations?

It reduces fears by diminishing the conditioned response Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a suggested action for parents regarding their children's media consumption?

Limit exposure to violent media Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential positive effect of some violent video games suggested by contrary research?

Increased social networking Signup and view all the answers

How can parents influence their children's behavior regarding aggression?

By modeling positive behavior Signup and view all the answers

What should parents do if their children are exposed to violent content?

Discuss aggression openly Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of media violence can predispose viewers to interpret non-aggressive acts as aggressive?

Desensitization to violence Signup and view all the answers

What principle explains that responses leading to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated?

Law of Effect Signup and view all the answers

How do organisms learn to form a connection between stimulus and response according to Thorndike?

Through automatic processes without awareness Signup and view all the answers

In Thorndike's Puzzle Box experiment, what was the initial behavior of the cat?

The cat randomly explores the cage Signup and view all the answers

What is one practical implication of Thorndike's Law of Effect regarding human behavior?

Behaviors are reinforced by receiving rewards from challenges Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes Thorndike's belief about the learning process?

It is automatic and similar to natural occurrences, like falling leaves Signup and view all the answers

What does operant conditioning emphasize about organisms and their environment?

Behaviors are shaped by the consequences that follow them Signup and view all the answers

In the context of Thorndike's law, what is the likely outcome of an action if it leads to a satisfying consequence?

The action will be repeated more frequently Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT associated with the Law of Effect as explained by Thorndike?

Conscious understanding of the behavior Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes learning from maturation?

Learning involves experience, while maturation involves natural growth. Signup and view all the answers

What is habituation?

A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of classical conditioning?

Feeling hungry at the sight of a food advertisement. Signup and view all the answers

What is a neutral stimulus (NS) in the context of classical conditioning?

A stimulus that does not naturally elicit the response of interest. Signup and view all the answers

What is the unconditioned response (UCR)?

A natural, automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

How does habituation benefit individuals?

It helps focus on new information by ignoring repetitive stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

What role did Ivan Pavlov play in the study of classical conditioning?

He pioneered research on the relationship between stimuli and responses. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement correctly describes classical conditioning?

It involves associations between a stimulus and a response. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary objective of behavior modification?

To increase desirable behaviors and decrease undesirable ones Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a technique used in behavior modification?

Reinforcement scheduling Signup and view all the answers

What role does setting clear expectations play in behavior modification?

It helps ensure students understand the reinforcement system. Signup and view all the answers

Why is a mixed reinforcement schedule (fixed and variable) recommended?

It maintains and strengthens behavior over time. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of a couple's intervention, what was the consequence for not completing a household task?

A monetary penalty of $1 per point Signup and view all the answers

For goals and target behaviors, what is important to ensure during their definition?

Behaviors must be defined in observable terms. Signup and view all the answers

What is a strategy of behavior modification when trying to reduce problematic behaviors?

Ignoring undesirable behaviors Signup and view all the answers

What is the expected outcome of consistent implementation of a behavior modification program?

Strengthened desired behaviors over time Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Classical Conditioning

Relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience
Nurture (experience) versus Nature (maturation)

Differentiating Learning and Other Changes

Learning involves experience (nurture)
Maturation involves natural growth (nature)
Example: Children improving at tennis due to increased strength from growth
Performance vs. Learning: Temporary changes (e.g., fatigue) ≠ true learning

Habituation

Decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations of the same stimulus
Infants lose interest in a brightly colored toy after repeated exposure
Adults stop noticing wedding rings
Purpose: Helps ignore stimuli that no longer provide new information

Types of Learning

Simple Learning: Habituation (found in infants and adults)
Complex Learning: Classical Conditioning (association between stimulus and response)
- Examples: Crying at a bride walking down the aisle, feeling hungry at the sight of McDonald's golden arches, fearing the dark or falling in love
- Pioneered by Ivan Pavlov

Key Points

Differentiating between learning, maturation, and temporary performance changes is essential
Habituation allows us to focus on new information and ignore repetitive stimuli
Complex learning (e.g., classical conditioning) extends beyond habituation

Key Terminology

Neutral Stimulus (NS): Before conditioning, does not naturally elicit the response of interest
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally brings about a particular response without learning (e.g., meat in Pavlov's experiment)
Unconditioned Response (UCR): Natural, automatic response to the UCS (e.g., salivation in response to meat)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral stimulus that, after pairing with the UCS, elicits the response (e.g., bell after conditioning)
Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response elicited by the CS (e.g., salivation in response to the bell)

Process of Classical Conditioning

Before Conditioning: NS (e.g., bell) → no salivation (irrelevant response). UCS (e.g., meat) → UCR (e.g., salivation)
During Conditioning: NS (bell) is paired with UCS (meat). NS transforms into CS.
After Conditioning: CS (bell) → CR (salivation)

Key Principles

Conditioned = Learned (CS → CR)
Unconditioned = Not Learned (UCS → UCR)
Timing of Stimuli: CS should precede UCS by 0.5 seconds to a few seconds for effective conditioning.
Neutral Stimulus Transformation: NS becomes a CS after repeated pairings with UCS.

Additional Notes

Conditioning works best if CS precedes UCS.
Timing and consistency of pairings are crucial for success.

Ethical Concerns

Procedures were unethical.

Classical Conditioning Can Lead To

Development of Emotional Responses
- Fears/Phobias (e.g., bee sting → phobia)
- PTSD (e.g., veterans associating loud noises with battlefield trauma)
Positive Associations (e.g., a song evokes happy memories, a perfume recalls an early love)
Drug Addiction (e.g., addicts associating drug paraphernalia with pleasant drug effects)

Effects of Classical Conditioning

Negative Outcomes (e.g., phobias, PTSD, drug addiction)
Positive Outcomes (e.g., fondness for scents, sounds associated with good memories)

Extinction

A previously conditioned response (CR) decreases and eventually disappears when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus (US).
Spontaneous Recovery: the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response (CR) after a period of rest.

The Process of Acquisition, Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

Acquisition: The conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus (US) to strengthen the conditioned response (CR)
Extinction: The CS is presented repeatedly without the US, causing the CR to weaken.
Spontaneous Recovery: After a period of rest, the CR may reappear when the CS is presented again.

Generalization and Discrimination

Stimulus Generalization: After a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a specific response, similar stimuli also elicit the same response.
Stimulus Discrimination: Two stimuli are distinct enough that one elicits a CR while the other does not.

John Garcia's Research

Organisms are biologically prepared to quickly learn to avoid foods that make them sick.
Learned taste aversion: associating the taste of food with unpleasant symptoms (e.g., nausea, vomiting).

Challenge to Pavlov's Basic Assumptions

Pavlov's Hypothesis: Learning as a mechanistic process of linking stimuli and responses
Cognitive Learning Perspective: Learning involves active development of expectations about which stimuli will be paired with certain responses.

Applying Classical Conditioning to Advertising

Pairing products with positive stimuli (e.g., catchy jingles, attractive imagery)
Creating brand recognition
Leveraging emotional connections
Generalization

Operant Conditioning

A form of learning where a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened depending on the consequences

Key Characteristics of Operant Conditioning

Voluntary responses
Outcome-driven (organism operates on environment to produce a desired result)

Comparison with Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning: Involves biological responses (e.g., salivation)
Operant conditioning: Involves deliberate, voluntary actions

Thorndike's Law of Effect

Responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated.

Key Concepts Operant Conditioning

Learning Process (organism forms a connection between stimulus and response without awareness)

Reinforcement Schedules

Continuous reinforcement schedule: Behavior is reinforced every time it occurs.
Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule: Behavior is reinforced some but not all of the time
Impact of schedules: Continuous reinforcement leads to faster learning but partial reinforcement leads to more persistent behaviors
Example of behavior: Candy vending machine (continuous), slot machine (partial)

Types of Partial Reinforcement Schedules

Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforcement after a fixed number of responses.
Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforcement after an average number of responses.
Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforcement after a fixed time period.
Variable-interval schedule: Reinforcement after a varied time period

Cognitive Learning Theory

Focuses on internal mental processes underlying learning.
Beyond Stimulus-Response: Learning is not simply a link between a stimulus and a response, but people develop expectations of reinforcement.
Higher-order Processes: Some learning, such as driving a car, involves thought processes and information processing, which go beyond simple stimulus-response associations

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement and may not be demonstrated until later.

Key Findings from Experiments: Rats in a Maze

Unrewarded group
- Made many errors and took longer to reach the end
Rewarded Group
- Learned to quickly run to the food and made fewer errors
Experimental Group
- Immediate reduction in errors and quickly matched the rewarded group's performance.

Observational Learning

Learning by observing the behavior of another person (model).
Bobo doll experiment (Bandura, 1963)
- Children imitated the aggressive behavior of the model.
Fearless peer experiment (Bandura, 1967)
- Children afraid of dogs observed a model playing with a dog and became more likely to approach dogs.

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Description

Test your knowledge on key concepts in learning and conditioning, covering reinforcement schedules, classical conditioning, and shaping behavior. This quiz focuses on understanding the effects of reinforcement, the role of stimuli, and the nuances of extinction and recovery. Perfect for students studying psychology or behavior analysis.