Psychology Chapter on Classical Conditioning
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following is a type of reinforcement schedule?

  • Fixed interval
  • Variable ratio
  • Negative Punishment
  • All of the above (correct)

    • What happens during the extinction phase of classical conditioning?

    The conditioned response gradually weakens and eventually disappears when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

    Which of the following is NOT a factor in the effectiveness of punishment?

  • Severity
  • Initial punishment level
  • Consistency
  • All of the above are factors (correct)

    • What is the name of the theory that explains the process of how we learn from others?

    <p>Social Learning Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the experiment that demonstrated how children can learn aggressive behavior from observing adults?

    <p>The Bobo Doll Experiment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mirror Neurons are cells that fire only when observing an action from another individual.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a core component of the Social Learning Theory?

    <p>Rewards</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two main types of learning?

    <p>Cognitive learning and Associative learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (US) is a stimulus that naturally elicits a response.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The conditioned response (CR) is a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a stage in classical conditioning?

    <p>Adaptation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is the definition of Associative Learning?

    <p>Pairing of stimuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Spontaneous recovery refers to the reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of extinction.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of generalization in classical conditioning?

    <p>A dog that has been conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell also salivates at the sound of a similar chime.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Preparedness is a biological predisposition to rapidly learn a response to a particular class of stimuli.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Higher-order classical conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus functions as though it were an unconditioned stimulus.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of conditioned emotional response?

    <p>A child who is afraid of dogs after being bitten by one.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Law of Effect, proposed by Edward Thorndike, states that responses followed by satisfaction will become more likely, while those not followed by satisfaction will become less likely.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a positive reinforcer?

    <p>Giving a dog a treat for sitting.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a negative punishment?

    <p>Taking away a teenager's car keys for breaking curfew.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Corporal punishment, such as spanking, is associated with poorer parent-child relationships, poorer mental health, and increased risk of child delinquency.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The effectiveness of punishment depends on factors such as severity, initial punishment level, contiguity and being understood, consistency, and showing appropriate behaviors.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Delayed reinforcement reduces the strength of the stimulus-response pairing.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is shaping in operant conditioning?

    <p>A gradual process of reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is a method used to help individuals with developmental conditions, such as autism, learn and develop new skills.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a type of schedule of reinforcement?

    <p>Cumulative</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Partial or intermittent reinforcement schedules generally lead to more resistance to extinction than continuous reinforcement schedules.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fixed-ratio schedules deliver reinforcement after a set number of responses.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a fixed-interval schedule?

    <p>A worker gets paid every two weeks.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Variable-interval schedules deliver reinforcement after a variable amount of time.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The partial reinforcement effect suggests that behaviors learned through partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than behaviors learned through continuous reinforcement.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Superstitions can arise when it is not clear what behavior led specifically to a reward.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is considered a positive effect of superstitions?

    <p>Superstitions can provide a sense of control and security.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Latent learning is a type of learning that is not immediately expressed in behavior but is demonstrated later when the behavior is rewarded.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiment demonstrates that children can learn aggressive behavior by observing an adult model.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Humans tend to over-imitate other humans, copying behaviors that may not be necessary for achieving a goal.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Exposure to violent media can desensitize individuals to violence and make them more likely to engage in aggressive thoughts and behaviors.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are mirror neurons?

    <p>Neurons that fire both when an individual performs a specific action and when they observe another person performing the same action.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mirror neurons are only activated when observing actions, not when inferring the intention behind the action.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of variable ratio schedules?

    <p>They deliver reinforcement after a variable amount of responses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true about partial reinforcement?

    <p>It leads to greater resistance to extinction than continuous reinforcement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of how superstitions can positively affect behavior?

    <p>By providing comfort and reducing anxiety in uncertain situations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'latent learning' refer to?

    <p>Knowledge acquired without reinforcement until a reward is given.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly describes the role of mirror neurons?

    <p>They fire when observing an action, reflecting inferred intentions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component is not part of the Social Learning Theory?

    <p>Perception</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What common misconception exists around media influence on behavior?

    <p>Correlations between media and behavior imply causation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes a fixed interval schedule?

    <p>Reinforcement is provided after a specific period, regardless of responses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best describes the concept of generalization in learning?

    <p>Responding to similar stimuli as if they were the original stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of preparedness in learning?

    <p>To rapidly learn responses to specific classes of stimuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which outcome is likely to occur as a result of operant conditioning when a behavior is followed by punishment?

    <p>A decrease in the likelihood of that behavior happening again.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In operant conditioning, what does shaping involve?

    <p>Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes evaluative conditioning in advertising?

    <p>Pairing a stimulus with an emotional response from another stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a critical factor for the effectiveness of punishment?

    <p>Contiguity and clarity in understanding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs during the spontaneous recovery phase of classical conditioning?

    <p>The conditioned response reappears after a pause.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of reinforcement involves the removal of an aversive stimulus to increase a behavior?

    <p>Negative reinforcement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes a discriminative stimulus in operant conditioning?

    <p>A cue that suggests reinforcement will occur for a specific behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of delayed reinforcement on operant behavior?

    <p>It reduces the strength of the stimulus-response pairing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Learning

    • Learning involves beneficial changes in behaviour.
    • Cognitive learning involves acquiring new knowledge through methods like reading, listening, and tests.
    • Associative learning involves pairing stimuli.

    Classical Conditioning

    • Classical conditioning is learning where a neutral stimulus elicits a response originally caused by another stimulus.
    • Before conditioning, a neutral stimulus (e.g., a metronome) produces no response.
    • Before conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food) triggers an unconditioned response (e.g., salivation).
    • During conditioning, the neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
    • After conditioning, the previously neutral stimulus (now a conditioned stimulus) triggers a conditioned response (e.g., salivation).

    Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery

    • The association between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus relies on repeated, temporally contiguous pairings.
    • Acquisition is the initial learning of the association between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.
    • Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus, so the conditioned response weakens.
    • Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest.

    Generalization and Discrimination

    • Generalization is when a response that originally occurs to a specific stimulus occurs also to similar stimuli.
    • Discrimination involves learning to respond to one original stimulus but not to a new, similar stimulus.
    • Generalization and discrimination enhance survival and fitness.

    Preparedness

    • Preparedness refers to the biological predisposition to learn a response to a particular class of stimuli.
    • This biological predisposition is relevant to the speed and ease of learning.
    • Different conditioned stimuli and different responses show different degrees of preparedness for conditioning, with biological threats being the easiest to condition and non-threatening stimuli hardest.

    Conditioned Taste Aversions

    • Conditioned taste aversion is the dislike of a food or drink paired with illness.
    • These are frequently learned in a single trial, even when illness is delayed following consumption.
    • New foods are more susceptible to conditioned taste aversions compared to familiar foods.

    Higher-Order Classical Conditioning

    • Higher-order conditioning is when a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus.
    • Learning a new response using the original conditioned stimulus as the new unconditioned stimulus.

    Conditioning Emotions

    • Conditioned emotional responses are emotional responses associated with specific objects or situations.
    • Conditioned emotional responses can impact other aspects of learning and behaviour.
    • Little Albert and Phobias are examples of demonstrating conditioned emotional responses.

    Conditioning and Advertising

    • Evaluative conditioning occurs when one stimulus takes on the emotional valence of another stimulus.
    • Classical conditioning is used in advertising, with examples including Watson's Pebeco toothpaste campaign and celebrity advertisements.

    Negative Political Advertising

    • Negative political advertising uses evaluative conditioning to elicit unpleasant emotional responses in viewers.
    • Images of political opponents are presented in a negative light, evoking negative emotions.
    • This approach aims to influence voters' opinions and actions towards political candidates.

    Operant Conditioning

    • Operant conditioning involves learning behaviours based on their consequences.
    • Classical conditioning involves automatic responses, while operant conditioning is voluntary.
    • The law of effect states that responses followed by satisfaction are more likely to occur again, and responses not followed by satisfaction are less likely to occur again.

    Reinforcement and Punishment

    • Reinforcement involves a situation that increases the likelihood of a behaviour.
    • Punishment involves a situation that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour.
    • Reinforcement and punishment can be positive (adding a stimulus) or negative (removing a stimulus).

    Positive, Negative Reinforcement, Positive, and Negative Punishment

    • Positive reinforcement involves adding a pleasant stimulus to increase a behaviour.
    • Negative reinforcement involves removing an aversive stimulus to increase a behaviour.
    • Positive punishment involves adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behaviour.
    • Negative punishment involves removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behaviour.

    Corporal Punishment

    • Corporal punishment interrupts behaviour but has lasting effects.
    • This type of punishment is associated with a range of negative consequences for individuals and their relationships.

    Applying Non-Physical Punishment

    • The effectiveness of non-physical punishment depends on severity, contiguity, and consistency.
    • Showing appropriate behaviours is key to effective non-physical punishment.

    Discrimination and Generalization in Operant Conditioning

    • A discriminative stimulus cues that a particular response will be reinforced.
    • Delayed reinforcement reduces the strength of stimulus-response pairing.

    Applications of Operant Conditioning

    • Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behaviour until the desired behaviour is established.
    • Chaining involves linking individual behaviours into a sequence of actions.
    • Applied behaviour analysis (ABA) employs operant conditioning principles to treat developmental conditions such as autism, aiming to shape desirable behaviours.

    Schedules of Reinforcement

    • Continuous reinforcement occurs when every response is reinforced.
    • Partial reinforcement occurs when only some responses are reinforced.
    • Partial reinforcement schedules include fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval schedules.

    Partial Reinforcement Schedules

    • Ratio schedules focus on the number of responses, while interval schedules focus on the time elapsed.
    • Fixed schedules have a consistent reinforcement pattern, while variable schedules have an unpredictable pattern.

    Fixed Ratio Schedules

    • Reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses.
    • This produces high response rates.
    • Rewards systems function using fixed ratio schedules.

    Fixed Interval Schedules

    • Reinforcement is delivered after a specific amount of time has elapsed following a response.
    • This type of schedule results in inconsistent response rates, with an increase in response rate nearing the next reinforcement interval.
    • Exemplified by waiting periods between paychecks, driving tests, and other activities with response rates that fluctuate with the time intervals.

    Variable Interval Schedules

    • Reinforcement is delivered after a variable amount of time has elapsed following a response.
    • This type of schedule typically produces a moderate to steady response rate.
    • Exemplified by how often checking your email, checking the mail, or other activities that lack a clear time frame for reinforcement.

    Variable Ratio Schedules

    • Reinforcement is given after a variable number of responses.
    • This schedule leads to high rates of responding because reinforcement is unpredictable.
    • Exemplified by gambling, as the reinforcement amount and timing are unpredictable.

    Controlled by Conditioning

    • Ratio schedules typically lead to higher response rates.
    • Variable ratio schedules are particularly motivating.
    • Partial reinforcement resistance to extinction is stronger than continuous reinforcement.

    Driving Addiction

    • Classical and operant conditioning work together to maintain addictive behaviours.
    • Losses are often disguised as wins in gambling and associated activities.

    Superstitions

    • Superstitions can develop when the relationship between behaviours and outcomes is unclear.
    • Superstitious behaviour was studied using pigeons to examine the unpredictable relationship between behaviours and rewards.

    Superstitions (continued)

    • Confirmation bias can strengthen superstitious behaviours.
    • Superstitions can sometimes have positive effects on behaviours one thinks may influence control.

    Cognitive Perspectives on Learning

    • Latent learning is learning that is not expressed until reinforcement.
    • Latent learning was studied in experiments with rats learning a maze.

    Observational Learning

    • Observational learning involves acquiring behaviour and knowledge by watching others.
    • Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiment studied observational learning in children.
    • Social learning theory highlights the importance of attention, memory, motor ability, and motivation in observational learning.

    Imitation

    • Imitation involves recreating a motor behaviour or expression to achieve a goal.
    • Humans tend to imitate behaviours of others, possibly through mirror neurons.

    Can Media Affect Behaviour?

    • Media often impacts how we perceive certain behaviours as normal.
    • Desensitization to violent behaviours and a correlation between exposure to violent media and aggressive behaviours have been observed.
    • This correlation does not necessarily indicate causation.

    Mirror Neurons

    • Mirror neurons are cells that fire when performing an action and observing the same action in another.
    • These neurons can be influenced by the intention behind the observed movement.

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    Explore the principles of classical conditioning in this informative quiz. Test your understanding of the concepts of learning, including cognitive and associative learning, as well as the processes involved in acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery. Perfect for psychology students eager to deepen their knowledge of behavior change.

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