Chapter 5: Classical Conditioning PDF

**Ch. 5** **Mod.15 \-- Classical Conditioning** **Learning:** - Relatively **permanent change in behavior** brought about by **experience**. - **Nurture** (experience) vs. **Nature** (maturation) **Differentiating Learning and Other Changes** - **Nature vs. Nurture:** - **Lear...

**Ch. 5** **Mod.15 \-- Classical Conditioning** **Learning:** - Relatively **permanent change in behavior** brought about by **experience**. - **Nurture** (experience) vs. **Nature** (maturation) **Differentiating Learning and Other Changes** - **Nature vs. Nurture:** - **Learning** involves experience (**nurture**). - **Maturation** involves natural growth (**nature**). - Example: Children improve at tennis due to increased strength from growth. - **Performance vs. Learning:** - Temporary changes (e.g., fatigue or lack of effort) ≠ true learning. **Habituation** - **Definition:** - Decrease in response to a stimulus after **repeated presentations** of the same stimulus. - **Examples:** - **Infants:** - Lose interest in a brightly colored toy after repeated exposure. - **Adults:** - Newlyweds stop noticing they are wearing wedding rings. - **Purpose:** - Helps ignore stimuli that no longer provide new information. **Types of Learning** - **Simple Learning:** - **Habituation:** - Found in **infants** and **adults**. - **Complex Learning:** - **Classical Conditioning:** - Association between a stimulus and a response. - **Examples:** 1. Crying at a bride walking down the aisle. 2. Feeling hungry at the sight of McDonald's golden arches. 3. Fearing the dark or falling in love. - **Pioneered by:** Ivan Pavlov. **Key Points** - Differentiating between learning, maturation, and temporary performance changes is essential. - Habituation allows us to focus on new information and ignore repetitive stimuli. - Complex learning, such as **classical conditioning**, extends beyond habituation. **[THE BASICS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING]** **Key Terminology** - **Neutral Stimulus (NS)** - Before conditioning, does not naturally elicit the response of interest. - **Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)** - Naturally brings about a particular response without learning. - Example: Meat in Pavlov's experiment. - **Unconditioned Response (UCR)** - Natural, automatic response to the UCS, requiring no training. - Example: Salivation in response to meat. - **Conditioned Stimulus (CS)** - Previously neutral stimulus that, after pairing with the UCS, elicits the response. - Example: Bell after conditioning. - **Conditioned Response (CR)** - Learned response elicited by the CS. - Example: Salivation in response to the bell. **Process of Classical Conditioning** 1. **Before Conditioning** - NS (e.g., Bell) → No salivation (irrelevant response). - UCS (e.g., Meat) → UCR (e.g., Salivation). 2. **During Conditioning** - NS (Bell) is paired with UCS (Meat). 3. **After Conditioning** - NS transforms into CS. - CS (Bell) → CR (Salivation). **Key Principles** - **Conditioned = Learned** - CS → CR is the result of learning/training. - **Unconditioned = Not Learned** - UCS → UCR occurs naturally without prior training. - **Timing of Stimuli** - The CS should precede the UCS by **0.5 seconds to a few seconds** for effective conditioning. - **Neutral Stimulus Transformation** - NS becomes a CS after repeated pairings with UCS. **Summary Relationships** - **UCS → UCR** (Natural pairing). - **CS → CR** (Learned pairing). - **UCR ≈ CR** in behavior but differ in origin: - UCR is natural. - CR is learned. **Pavlov's Experiment** - **Objective** - Demonstrate learning through association. - **Methodology** - Attached a tube to a dog\'s salivary gland to measure saliva. - Paired the sound of a bell (NS) with meat (UCS). - **Outcome** - Dog began salivating at the sound of the bell (CS) even without meat. - Demonstrated classical conditioning. 1. **Before Conditioning** a. Bell (NS) → No salivation. b. Meat (UCS) → Salivation (UCR). 2. **During Conditioning** c. Bell (NS) + Meat (UCS) → Salivation. 3. **After Conditioning** d. Bell (CS) → Salivation (CR). **Additional Notes** - Conditioning works best if CS precedes UCS. - Timing and consistency of pairings are crucial for success. **[APPLYING CONDITIONING PRINCIPLES TO HUMAN BEHAVIOR]** **Classical Conditioning** - **Definition**: Learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (US), eliciting a conditioned response (CR). **Experiment of Watson and Rayner (1920)** - **Case Study**: *Little Albert* - **Experiment**: - Albert initially had no fear of rats but feared loud noises. - Loud noise (US) paired with a white rat → Fear (UR). - Rat became a conditioned stimulus (CS) → Fear response (CR). - **Generalization**: Fear extended to similar objects (e.g., white rabbit, sealskin coat, Santa Claus mask). - **Ethical Concerns**: Procedures were unethical and wouldn't be allowed today. - **Uncertain Fate**: Little Albert's outcome remains speculative. **Classical Conditioning can lead to:** - **Development of Emotional Responses** - **Fears/Phobias**: - Example: Fear of mice, spiders, or insects after a negative experience (e.g., bee sting → phobia). - **Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)**: - Example: Veterans associate loud noises with battlefield trauma → fear and anxiety even years later. - **Positive Associations** - Example: - A song evokes happy or bittersweet memories. - A perfume/aftershave smell recalls an early love. - **Drug Addiction** - **Stimuli Association**: - Addicts associate drug paraphernalia (e.g., syringe, room) with pleasant effects of drugs. - **Result**: Triggers cravings and reactions related to drug use. **Effects of Classical Conditioning** - **Negative Outcomes**: - Phobias. - PTSD. - Drug addiction. - **Positive Outcomes**: - Fondness for scents, sounds, or experiences tied to positive memories. **[EXTINCTION]** - **Extinction:**\ A basic learning phenomenon in classical conditioning where a previously conditioned response (CR) decreases in frequency and eventually disappears when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus (US). - **Spontaneous Recovery:**\ The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response (CR) after a period of rest, even without further conditioning. This shows that extinction does not erase the learning entirely. - **Applications and Implications**: - **Emotional Responses**: - Extinction is helpful in reducing fears or negative associations (e.g., fear of shower scenes in movies like *Psycho*). - **Drug Addiction**: - Extinction and spontaneous recovery explain challenges in overcoming addiction: - Extinction: Cured addicts stop experiencing cravings when stimuli (e.g., white powder) are no longer associated with drugs. - Spontaneous Recovery: Stimuli with strong associations to the drug can trigger cravings even after long periods of abstinence. **The Process:** - **Acquisition Phase:** - The **conditioned stimulus (CS)** (e.g., the ringing of a bell) is repeatedly paired with the **unconditioned stimulus (US)** (e.g., food). - Over time, the pairing strengthens the conditioned response (CR) (e.g., salivation). - The CR increases gradually until it reaches its full strength during this phase. - **Extinction Phase:** - The **CS** (e.g., bell) is presented repeatedly **without the US** (e.g., food is no longer given after the bell). - At first, the subject (e.g., the dog) still shows the conditioned response (CR) (salivation). - With repeated presentations of the CS alone, the CR begins to decline in frequency and intensity. - Eventually, the CR disappears altogether, and extinction is said to have occurred. - **Spontaneous Recovery Phase:** - After a pause or rest period in which the CS is not presented, the **CR** (salivation) can reappear when the CS (bell) is presented again. - This return of the CR is called **spontaneous recovery**. - However, if the CS continues to be presented without the US, the CR will once again fade more rapidly, and extinction will reoccur. - **Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery, and Learning Curve**: - Extinction: Gradual decline of CR when CS is presented alone. - Spontaneous Recovery: Temporary reappearance of CR after a pause. - Extinction Reoccurs: The process is repeated if CS continues to appear without US. **[GENERALIZATION AND DISCRIMINATION]** #### **Definitions** - **Stimulus Generalization:** - A process where, after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a specific response, similar stimuli also elicit the same response. - The greater the similarity between two stimuli, the higher the likelihood of stimulus generalization. - Example: Pavlov's dogs salivating not only at the bell but also at a buzzer. - **Stimulus Discrimination:** - A process where two stimuli are distinct enough that one elicits a conditioned response, while the other does not. - It enables the differentiation between stimuli. - Example: A dog recognizing the sound of a can opener for food but not responding to a food processor. #### **Processes** - ##### Stimulus Generalization 1. A conditioned stimulus (CS) produces a conditioned response (CR). 2. Similar stimuli to the original CS also produce the CR (although the intensity may vary). 3. The likelihood of generalization increases with the degree of similarity between the new stimulus and the original CS. 4. Example: - Little Albert became fearful of other furry white objects (e.g., Santa Claus mask), though his response to them was less intense than his fear of the rat. - Generalization helps with adaptive behavior, such as braking at all red lights, regardless of minor variations. - ##### Stimulus Discrimination 1. Two stimuli are presented that are sufficiently distinct. 2. One stimulus elicits a CR, while the other does not. 3. This distinction enables differentiation and adaptive responses. 4. Examples: - A dog runs to the kitchen at the sound of a can opener (associated with food) but not at the sound of a food processor. - A person avoids a growling dog but pets one wagging its tail. #### **Key Insights** - Stimulus generalization allows recognition of similar stimuli and consistent responses across variations. - Stimulus discrimination ensures precise reactions to specific stimuli, enabling adaptive behavior. - Both processes balance generalization for efficiency and discrimination for accuracy. - **John Garcia's Research** - Discovered that organisms (including humans) are biologically prepared to quickly learn to avoid foods that make them sick. - This learning can occur even when there is a significant delay between the conditioned stimulus (e.g., tainted food) and the unconditioned response (e.g., sickness). - Learned taste aversion: associating the taste of a particular food with unpleasant symptoms (e.g., nausea, vomiting). **Garcia's Findings** 1. **Learned Taste Aversion** - Example: If a person eats peanuts and becomes sick several hours later, they may avoid peanuts in the future. - Conditioned response can occur after one exposure. - **Time Gap:** Conditioning can happen even when the interval between exposure to the conditioned stimulus (e.g., tainted food) and the unconditioned response (e.g., sickness) is as long as 8 hours. 2. **Persistence of Conditioning** - Conditioned responses can last for a long time. - Example: A dog learns to avoid rotting food that made it sick in the past. 3. **Implications** - **Practical Application:** To prevent crows from stealing eggs, farmers can lace eggs with a chemical that makes the crows ill. After the exposure, crows no longer find eggs appetizing. **Challenge to Pavlov's Basic Assumptions** - **Pavlov's Hypothesis:** Learning was simply a mechanistic process of linking stimuli and responses. - **Cognitive Learning Perspective:** Learning involves active development of expectations about which stimuli will be paired with certain responses. - Example: A dog anticipates food when it hears a ringing bell. - **Garcia's Discovery vs Pavlov's View:** - Classical conditioning alone does not fully explain how organisms learn. - Organisms can be biologically prepared to make certain associations, as demonstrated by learned taste aversions. **Conclusion** - Garcia's work extended classical conditioning by showing that certain associations are learned more easily and more persistently, especially when biological predispositions are involved. This challenged the simplistic, mechanistic view of classical conditioning. **[APPROFONDIMENTI]** **-How Knowledge of Classical Conditioning Can Be Useful in Advertising** An advertising executive can apply classical conditioning principles to create effective campaigns by associating their product with positive emotions or experiences: 1. **Pairing Products with Positive Stimuli**: - Use a pleasant stimulus (e.g., a catchy jingle, attractive imagery, or celebrity endorsements) as the **unconditioned stimulus (US)** to evoke a positive emotional response (**unconditioned response, UR**). - Over time, the product (neutral stimulus) becomes a **conditioned stimulus (CS)**, eliciting the same positive emotional response (**conditioned response, CR**). - **Example**: A luxury car ad featuring serene landscapes and uplifting music makes viewers associate the car with peace and success. 2. **Creating Brand Recognition**: - Repeated exposure to logos, slogans, or jingles (e.g., McDonald's golden arches) ensures they become **conditioned stimuli** that trigger hunger or desire for the product. 3. **Leveraging Emotional Connections**: - Advertisements might evoke nostalgia or happiness by pairing products with scenarios tied to cherished memories (e.g., holidays, family gatherings). 4. **Generalization**: - Advertisers can use related stimuli to elicit similar responses (e.g., extending the positive associations of a successful product to a new product line). **Ethical Issues in Using Classical Conditioning in Advertising** 1. **Manipulation of Consumers**: - Conditioning techniques may exploit emotions to create unconscious desires, leading to impulsive purchases. 2. **Negative Emotional Associations**: - Some campaigns use fear or anxiety (e.g., \"missing out\" or health scares) to drive sales, potentially causing undue stress. 3. **Targeting Vulnerable Groups**: - Conditioning techniques could disproportionately affect children or individuals with less-developed critical thinking skills, who are less able to distinguish between genuine needs and conditioned desires. 4. **Addictive Associations**: - Similar to how drug paraphernalia triggers cravings in addicts, pairing products with strong emotional stimuli could foster excessive consumption, especially in industries like fast food or gambling. By using classical conditioning ethically, advertisers can focus on enhancing genuine connections with their audience rather than manipulating emotions for profit. **Mod.16 -- operant conditioning** **[OPERANT CONDITIONING]** **Definition** - **Operant Conditioning**: A form of learning where a voluntary response is **strengthened** or **weakened** depending on the consequences (favorable or unfavorable). - **Strengthened response**: The behavior becomes more likely to recur. - **Weakened response**: The behavior becomes less likely to recur. **Key Characteristics** - **Voluntary Responses**: Operant conditioning applies to **deliberate, voluntary actions** (as opposed to classical conditioning, which deals with automatic, natural responses). - **Outcome-driven**: The organism **operates on its environment** to produce a desired result. - Example: Working hard leads to a raise, studying leads to good grades. **Comparison with Classical Conditioning** - **Classical Conditioning**: Involves **biological responses** (e.g., salivation to food). - **Operant Conditioning**: Involves **deliberate, voluntary actions** aimed at achieving a goal. **Application** - Operant conditioning is fundamental to **human and animal learning**, including teaching complex tasks. - It can bring about powerful changes in behavior through reinforcement or punishment. **Conclusion** Operant conditioning emphasizes how organisms actively engage with their environment to bring about desired outcomes, with behaviors being shaped by the consequences that follow them. **[THORNDIKE'S LAW OF EFFECT]** **Definition** - **Law of Effect**: Responses that lead to **satisfying consequences** are more likely to be repeated. **Key Concepts** - **Learning Process**: - Organisms, over time and through experience, form a direct **connection** between the **stimulus** and the **response**. - The organism does this without **awareness** of the link between the response and the reward. **Example: Thorndike's Puzzle Box (Cat Experiment)** - **Scenario**: - A **hungry cat** is placed in a **cage** with food just outside of its reach. - The cat has to **step on a paddle** to release the door and reach the food. - **Behavior**: - Initially, the cat **randomly** explores the cage. - Eventually, the cat **accidentally** steps on the paddle, releasing the door. - The cat **learns** that pressing the paddle results in getting food. - **Repetition**: Over time, the cat **learns to press the paddle** faster in subsequent trials. **Thorndike's Beliefs** - **Automatic Process**: - Thorndike believed that the **learning** process is automatic, like the falling of leaves in autumn. - Organisms **do not need to consciously understand** the link between the action (response) and the reward (food). - **Connection Between Stimulus and Response**: - Through **experience**, organisms **automatically** form a connection between a specific **stimulus** (e.g., being in the cage) and a specific **response** (pressing the paddle). **Practical Implications** - **Relevance to Human Behavior**: - Thorndike's law is relevant in understanding behaviors like playing **puzzles** or **games** (e.g., Sudoku, Angry Birds), where people engage due to the **reward** they receive from solving challenges. **Conclusion** Thorndike's Law of Effect explains that behavior is shaped by its consequences: satisfying results increase the likelihood of repeating the behavior. **[THE BASICS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING]** **Overview and Key Concepts** **Skinner Box and Basic Principles**\ B.F. Skinner developed the *Skinner box*, a controlled environment used to study operant conditioning in animals. In a typical experiment, a rat in the box accidentally presses a lever while exploring. Eventually, it learns that pressing the lever results in a food pellet, increasing the likelihood of that behavior. This process is known as reinforcement, where a stimulus increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. **[Reinforcement: The Central Concept]**\ Reinforcement is the process that increases the probability of a behavior being repeated. The stimulus that causes this increase is called a reinforcer. There are two types: - **Primary reinforcers**: Satisfy biological needs naturally (e.g., food for a hungry person). - **Secondary reinforcers**: Become reinforcing through association with primary reinforcers (e.g., money, which can buy food). **Types of Reinforcers** - **Positive Reinforcers**: A stimulus added to the environment that increases the likelihood of a preceding behavior (e.g., praise or money given after good performance). - **Negative Reinforcers**: The removal of an unpleasant stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated (e.g., using ointment to relieve an itchy rash). Negative reinforcement is often confused with punishment but actually strengthens behavior. **Punishment: Reducing Behavior**\ Punishment, unlike reinforcement, reduces the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. There are two types: - **Positive Punishment**: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to weaken behavior (e.g., spanking or jail). - **Negative Punishment**: Removing something pleasant to decrease the behavior (e.g., taking away a child\'s video game for misbehavior). **[Differences Between Reinforcement and Punishment]** - **Reinforcement** increases behavior, while **punishment** decreases it. - **Positive reinforcement** adds a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior, whereas **positive punishment** adds an unpleasant one to decrease it. - **Negative reinforcement** involves removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior, while **negative punishment** involves removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior. -- -- -- -- -- -- **[Pros and Cons of Punishment]**\ Punishment can be effective in specific cases, such as when dangerous behaviors need to be suppressed (e.g., preventing a child from running into a street). However, punishment has several downsides: - **Ineffectiveness**: Punishment often fails if not applied immediately after the undesired behavior or if the person can leave the situation. - **Replacement with undesirable behaviors**: Sometimes, punished behaviors are replaced with even worse behaviors. - **Harmful effects**: Physical punishment can harm the individual, leading to fear, lower self-esteem, and the belief that aggression is acceptable. **Why Reinforcement is More Effective**[\ ]Reinforcement, in contrast, encourages the repetition of positive behaviors and is generally more effective in the long term for encouraging desirable behavior. ### [Schedules of Reinforcement: Timing Life's Rewards] - **Reinforcement Schedules** - **Continuous Reinforcement Schedule**: Behavior is reinforced every time it occurs. - **Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule**: Behavior is reinforced some but not all of the time. - **Impact of Schedules** - **Learning**: Continuous reinforcement leads to faster learning, but partial reinforcement leads to longer-lasting behavior. - **Extinction**: Partial reinforcement schedules result in slower extinction (disappearance of conditioned response) compared to continuous reinforcement. - **Example of Behavior** - **Candy Vending Machine (Continuous)**: Expected candy with each coin inserted; quick extinction when machine is broken. - **Slot Machine (Partial)**: Rare rewards create persistence in behavior, even when no payoff occurs. - **Types of Partial Reinforcement Schedules** - **Fixed-Ratio Schedule**: Reinforcement after a fixed number of responses. 1. Example: Every 10th lever press. 2. High rate of response. - **Variable-Ratio Schedule**: Reinforcement after an average number of responses, unpredictable reinforcement. 3. Example: Telephone salesperson making sales after variable attempts. 4. High rate of response, resistant to extinction. - **Fixed-Interval Schedule** - Reinforcement after a fixed time period. - Example: Weekly paycheck. - Low response rate, especially just after reinforcement. - **Scalloping Effect**: Increase in response rate just before the reinforcement (e.g., students cramming before exams). - **Variable-Interval Schedule** - Reinforcement after varying time intervals. - Example: Surprise quizzes given at unpredictable intervals. - Steady response rate, longer extinction time compared to fixed-interval. - **General Impact of Schedules** - **Fixed-Ratio**: Fast response, high rate of behavior. - **Variable-Ratio**: Fast, persistent response, highly resistant to extinction. - **Fixed-Interval**: Low response rate, scalloping effect. - **Variable-Interval**: Steady rate of response, more consistent behavior over time. - **Summary of Extinction and Persistence** - **Continuous reinforcement**: Faster extinction. - **Partial reinforcement**: Slower extinction, more persistent behavior. **[Discrimination and Generalization in Operant Conditioning]** - **Discrimination**: Process where behavior is reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus but not in its absence. - *Stimulus Control Training*: Behavior is reinforced with a specific stimulus (e.g., a red or green light). - **Discriminative Stimulus**: A signal that a response will be reinforced (e.g., a good mood of a roommate signals you can borrow their CD). - **Generalization**: Response learned to one stimulus is exhibited in response to similar stimuli (e.g., politeness generalized to other situations). **[Shaping: Reinforcing What Doesn't Come Naturally]** - **Shaping**: Teaching complex behaviors by reinforcing closer approximations of the desired behavior. - Step 1: Reinforce any behavior similar to the desired one. - Step 2: Reinforce only behaviors closer to the final goal. - Step 3: Reinforce only the desired behavior. - Each step builds upon the previous one. - Allows for teaching complex behaviors that wouldn't occur naturally (e.g., dolphin rescue, auto repair). **[Biological Constraints on Learning]** - **Biological Constraints**: Some behaviors cannot be easily trained due to evolutionary predispositions. - Example 1: Pigs can't be trained to pick up a disk, as they are biologically inclined to push objects with their noses. - Example 2: Raccoons instinctively rub objects like coins, interfering with training to drop them in a piggy bank. - **Evolutionary Perspective**: Organisms learn behaviors relevant to their environment that aid survival (e.g., learning to avoid hot surfaces). - **Predisposition to Fear**: Humans are genetically predisposed to fear certain stimuli (e.g., snakes, hostile faces). **[Behavior Modification]** - **Steps in Behavior Modification**: 1. Identify goals and target behaviors. 2. Design and record preliminary data. 3. Select and implement a behavior-change strategy. 4. Keep records and evaluate the program. **[Comparing classical and operant conditioning]** -- -- -- -- -- -- **[APPROFONDIMENTI]** -How would you use your knowledge of operant conditioning to set up a program to increase the likelihood that students will complete their homework more frequently? To increase the likelihood that students will complete their homework more frequently using operant conditioning, I would set up a reinforcement program with a combination of **partial reinforcement schedules** and **motivational strategies**. Here\'s how I would approach it: ### 1. **Choice of Reinforcement Schedule** - **Fixed-Ratio Schedule**: Offer reinforcement after a specific number of homework assignments are completed. For example, after completing five assignments, students could earn a reward such as a small break, a sticker, or extra credit points. This would encourage students to complete assignments quickly to gain rewards. - *Effect*: This would lead to a high rate of response, as students are motivated to finish assignments to earn the reinforcement. - **Variable-Ratio Schedule**: Introduce unpredictable reinforcement, where students might receive a reward after a random number of assignments are completed. For example, after completing assignments 3, 7, 10, and 15, they might receive a surprise reward (e.g., a bonus point or praise). - *Effect*: This would create persistent effort and maintain motivation over time, as students never know when the next reward might occur, making them more likely to continue completing assignments. ### 2. **Use of Fixed-Interval and Variable-Interval Schedules** - **Fixed-Interval Schedule**: Students could receive reinforcement for completing their homework if it is done within a fixed time frame, such as submitting assignments on time each week to receive praise or a small reward. For example, \"Submit your homework by Friday to receive positive reinforcement.\" - *Effect*: This would create a steady, although not intense, rate of behavior, especially towards the end of the week (students may start working more intensively closer to the deadline). - **Variable-Interval Schedule**: Randomly provide reinforcement for completing homework within varying time intervals (for example, some students may get reinforcement for submitting on Monday, others on Thursday). This would encourage students to keep working steadily and consistently, as they do not know when the reinforcement will come. - *Effect*: This helps maintain a steady rate of homework completion and reduces procrastination since students never know when they might get rewarded. ### 3. **Combination of Immediate and Delayed Reinforcement** - **Immediate Reinforcement**: When a student completes their homework, offer immediate rewards such as praise, a sticker, or positive feedback. - *Effect*: This helps strengthen the connection between the behavior (completing homework) and the reinforcement (reward). - **Delayed Reinforcement**: For larger goals (e.g., finishing a week's worth of homework), provide delayed rewards, like a movie pass or extra recess time, to encourage students to maintain consistent effort across a longer period. - *Effect*: Delayed reinforcement would encourage students to persist and complete homework consistently rather than just looking for immediate rewards. ### 4. **Gradual Reinforcement Fading** - Start with **continuous reinforcement** to ensure that students are quickly learning the connection between completing homework and receiving rewards. Over time, transition to partial reinforcement (using fixed-ratio or variable-ratio schedules), so the behavior becomes more self-sustained. - *Effect*: The shift from continuous to partial reinforcement ensures that students continue to complete their homework, even when the reinforcement becomes less frequent. ### 5. **Incorporating Social and Peer Reinforcement** - Social reinforcement (praise from peers or teachers) can also play a role. Students can be publicly acknowledged for completing their homework, or they could earn points for a class-wide reward system. - *Effect*: This encourages a positive social environment and motivates students through peer recognition and teacher praise. ### 6. **Providing Clear Expectations** - Set clear expectations for what constitutes \"completed homework\" and ensure students understand the reinforcement system. This helps create a consistent link between behavior and reward. By mixing **fixed and variable reinforcement schedules**, along with both **immediate and delayed rewards**, students will be more likely to complete their homework consistently and with greater persistence over time, as the reinforcement maintains and strengthens their behavior. -Ecco il riassunto schematizzato del testo: ### **Behavior Modification:** - **Obiettivo**: Aumentare i comportamenti desiderabili e ridurre quelli indesiderati. - **Tecniche Usate**: Reinforcement scheduling, shaping, generalization training, discrimination training, extinction. ### **Caso Studio (Coppia che ha richiesto aiuto)** 1. **Problema**: Litigi frequenti a causa di incomprensioni sulle faccende domestiche. 2. **Soluzione**: Raccolta dati sui conflitti per identificare il problema (faccende domestiche non svolte). 3. **Intervento**: - Lista delle faccende domestiche con punti assegnati in base al tempo necessario per completarle. - Divisione equa delle faccende, con contratto scritto per assicurarne il rispetto. - Penalità in denaro se una delle due persone non esegue un compito (1\$ per punto). - Programma di rinforzo positivo (elogio verbale per chi completa il compito). ### **Principi Fondamentali della Behavior Modification**: 1. **Identificazione degli Obiettivi e Comportamenti Target**: - Comportamenti devono essere definiti in termini osservabili. - Esempio: aumentare il tempo di studio (obiettivo) e studiare almeno 2 ore al giorno (comportamento target). 2. **Progettazione di un Sistema di Raccolta Dati**: - Raccogliere dati preliminari per stabilire una linea di base. 3. **Scelta della Strategia di Cambiamento**: - Uso di rinforzo positivo (elogio, premi) per comportamenti desiderati. - Uso di estinzione (ignorare comportamenti indesiderati) per ridurre comportamenti problematici. 4. **Implementazione del Programma**: - Consistenza e rinforzo regolare del comportamento desiderato. - Esempio: non dare uno snack al figlio che sta procrastinando invece di studiare. 5. **Monitoraggio e Registrazione dei Dati**: - Tenere traccia dei progressi per determinare l\'efficacia del programma. 6. **Valutazione e Modifica del Programma**: - Confrontare i dati raccolti con quelli iniziali per determinare se il programma è stato efficace. - Se non efficace, valutare strategie alternative. ### **Conclusioni**: - La modificazione comportamentale è stata efficace per il caso della coppia, riducendo rapidamente i conflitti. - Queste tecniche sono state applicate con successo in contesti come la perdita di peso, il miglioramento delle abitudini di studio e la cessazione del fumo. - La chiave del successo è la **coerenza** e il **monitoraggio accurato** dei comportamenti. **Mod. 17 -- cognitive approaches to learning** ### **Cognitive Learning Theory** - **Definition**: Cognitive learning theory focuses on the thought processes underlying learning rather than external stimuli and responses. It emphasizes the internal mental processes that occur during learning. ### **Basic Concept**: - **Beyond Stimulus-Response**: Cognitive learning theory argues that learning is not simply a link between a stimulus and a response, as seen in classical and operant conditioning. Instead, people develop expectations about receiving reinforcement after a response. - **Higher-order Processes**: Some learning, such as driving a car, involves thought processes, memories, and information processing, which go beyond automatic stimulus-response associations. ### **Example of Learning**: - **Driving a Car**: - Not learned through random trial and error. - Previous experiences as a passenger contribute to knowledge of car functions (e.g., inserting the key, pressing the gas pedal). - **Expectations**: Learners expect reinforcement (e.g., the car moving forward) after making specific responses (e.g., pressing the gas pedal). ### **Cognitive vs. Classical & Operant Conditioning**: - **Classical & Operant Conditioning**: Focus on external stimuli, responses, and reinforcement. - **Cognitive Learning**: Focus on internal thoughts, expectations, and mental processes behind learning. ### **Types of Learning Without Obvious Prior Reinforcement**: 1. **Latent Learning**: - Learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement and may not be demonstrated until later. 2. **Observational Learning**: - Learning by observing others, often without direct reinforcement for the learner. ### **Key Point to Remember**: - **Cognitive Learning Approach**: Emphasizes **internal thoughts and expectations** of the learner. - **Classical & Operant Conditioning**: Focuses on **external stimuli, responses, and reinforcement**. **[LATENT LEARNING]** - **Definition**: - Latent learning occurs when a new behavior is learned but not demonstrated until an incentive is provided. - **Occurs without reinforcement**. ### **Key Findings from Experiments**: - **Experiment with Rats in a Maze**: - **Unrewarded Group**: Rats allowed to roam the maze for 17 days without rewards. - Results: Made many errors, took longer to reach the end. - **Rewarded Group**: Rats given food at the end of the maze every day. - Results: Learned to run quickly to the food, made fewer errors. - **Experimental Group**: Rats were not rewarded for the first 10 days but were given food starting on the 11th day. - Results: Immediate reduction in errors, performance quickly matched that of the rewarded group. ### **Key Concept: Cognitive Map** - **Cognitive Map**: A mental representation of spatial locations and directions. - **Rats\' Learning**: The rats that were initially unrewarded developed a cognitive map of the maze layout during their early explorations. - **Mental Representation**: They did not show this learning until the reinforcement was introduced. ### **Human Example of Latent Learning**: - **Cognitive Maps in Humans**: - Example: Knowing the location of a store in a mall you\'ve frequently visited, even if you\'ve never entered it. ### **Challenges for Operant Conditioning Theorists**: - **No Obvious Reinforcement**: In the maze experiment, the rats learned the maze layout without reinforcement. - **Supports Cognitive View**: The learning occurred due to unobservable mental processes rather than external reinforcement. ### **Summary of Results**: - **Rats\' Learning without Reinforcement**: Early exploration led to a mental map, which was later revealed when reinforcement was introduced. - **Immediate Performance Change**: Upon receiving the incentive (food), previously unrewarded rats showed a significant reduction in errors, indicating latent learning. ### **Visual Aid**: - **Figure**: Comparison of rats' maze errors: - **Unrewarded group**: High error rates. - **Rewarded group**: Low error rates. - **Experimental group**: Error rates drop sharply after receiving reinforcement, aligning with the rewarded group. [**OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING**:**LEARNING THROUGH IMITATION**] ### **Key Concepts**: - **Definition**: Learning by observing the behavior of another person (model). - Often referred to as a **social cognitive approach** to learning. - **Albert Bandura**: Psychologist who emphasized observational learning as a major form of human learning. ### **Key Experiments & Findings**: 1. **Bobo Doll Experiment (Bandura, 1963)**: - Children watched an adult aggressively hit a Bobo doll. - Later, when given the chance, children imitated the aggressive behavior. - **Key Insight**: Children modeled behavior they observed, especially aggressive acts. 2. **Fearless Peer Experiment (Bandura, 1967)**: - Children afraid of dogs observed a model playing with a dog. - Result: Children became more likely to approach dogs after observing the model. ### **Key Aspects of Observational Learning**: - **Model Rewarding vs. Punishment**: - Behavior from models who are **rewarded** is more likely to be imitated than behavior from models who are **punished**. - **Punishment** of a model may reduce the likelihood of imitation but does not necessarily prevent learning about the behavior. - **Social Learning**: - Observational learning is important for acquiring skills where **operant conditioning** (trial-and-error) is unsuitable, such as **piloting an airplane** or performing **brain surgery**. ### **Genetic Basis of Observational Learning**: - **Mirror Neurons**: Neurons that fire when observing another person performing a behavior, suggesting an innate capacity to imitate. - **Animal Behavior**: Observational learning is evident in animals, such as **mother animals** teaching their young (e.g., hunting). ### **Factors Affecting Imitation**: - **Reinforcement of the Model**: - **Rewarded models** are more likely to be imitated than those who are punished. - Observing the **punishment** of a model does not stop learning but decreases the likelihood of mimicking the behavior. ### **Violence in Media and Aggression**: - **Aggression from Media Violence**: - **High levels of media violence** are linked to **increased aggression** in viewers. - **Contrary research**: Some studies suggest that violent video games may have **positive effects**, like increased social networking. - **APA Guidelines**: Urges minimizing children's exposure to violent media. - **Aspects of Media Violence**: - **Lowering inhibitions** against aggressive behavior. - **Predisposing viewers** to interpret non-aggressive acts as aggressive. - **Desensitization** to aggression. - **Real-Life Exposure to Violence**: - **Increases aggression** in individuals exposed to actual violence. **[APPROFONDIMENTI]** -A Social Worker What advice would you give to families about children's exposure to violent media and video games? As a social worker, I would advise families to be mindful of their children\'s exposure to violent media and video games. Here are some key points based on what we\'ve discussed: 1. **Limit Exposure**: Research suggests that high levels of media violence can lead to increased aggression in children. The American Pediatric Association recommends minimizing children\'s exposure to violent media. This includes not only television and movies but also video games that depict aggressive behavior. 2. **Monitor Content**: Parents should be aware of the content their children are consuming. Choose age-appropriate media and video games that promote positive behavior and social interactions. Some violent video games may encourage social interaction, but it is important to ensure they don\'t promote harmful behavior. 3. **Model Positive Behavior**: Children often imitate the behavior of those around them. Parents should model peaceful conflict resolution and positive social behavior, as children are likely to mimic what they observe. Rewarding positive actions can encourage children to adopt non-violent behaviors. 4. **Discuss Aggression**: If children are exposed to violent content, it's essential to have conversations with them about the impact of violence and aggression. Help them understand the difference between media portrayals and real-life behavior. 5. **Encourage Other Forms of Entertainment**: Encourage children to engage in creative activities, physical play, or educational games that promote cooperation, empathy, and problem-solving. These activities are less likely to contribute to aggression and more likely to foster emotional and social growth. 6. **Monitor Behavioral Changes**: If children begin to show signs of increased aggression, desensitization to violence, or a distorted view of aggression, it may be time to reevaluate their media exposure. These behaviors can sometimes stem from frequent exposure to violent content. 7. **Use Technology Tools**: Many devices offer parental controls that allow you to set limits on screen time and restrict access to certain types of content. Use these tools to ensure your child is engaging with age-appropriate material. In summary, it's important to be proactive in monitoring and regulating your child\'s exposure to violent media and video games to ensure they develop healthy, non-aggressive behaviors.