Psychology Chapter on Heuristics and Biases

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Questions and Answers

What does the availability heuristic primarily rely on for estimating the frequency of events?

Expert opinions on outcomes

Ease of recalling examples (correct)

Statistical analysis of events

Historical data on similar events

How can constant media exposure influence our judgment in the context of the availability heuristic?

It makes irrelevant information more salient.

It diversifies the examples available to consider.

It creates an illusion of frequency based on common knowledge. (correct)

It solely depends on the quality of the content presented.

In the context of emotional memories and the availability heuristic, how do emotional experiences affect decision making?

They increase the weight of emotional examples in decisions. (correct)

They create bias toward recalling negative experiences.

They have no significant effect on examples recalled.

They make irrelevant examples more memorable.

What is the effect of framing questions on decision-making outcomes?

It can lead to different assessments based on how information is presented. Signup and view all the answers

When presented with an outbreak of a disease expected to kill 600 people, how might framing the outcome influence public perception?

It can lead individuals to underestimate the severity of the event. Signup and view all the answers

What is the expected outcome in terms of people saved if Program B is adopted?

Expected value of 200 people saved Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes belief perseverance?

The inclination to disregard any evidence inconsistent with our beliefs. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following explains confirmation bias?

The inclination to search for evidence supporting one’s pre-existing beliefs. Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the unique features of language?

It uses a set of symbols combined in a rule-based form. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main implication of the file drawer problem in relation to confirmation bias?

It results in biased perceptions of evidence due to selective reporting. Signup and view all the answers

What defines a category in rule-based categorization?

Membership is all-or-none and all members are equal. Signup and view all the answers

How is graded membership characterized in relation to categories?

Members vary in their typicality. Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes mental representations of an average category member?

Prototypes Signup and view all the answers

What do exemplars contribute to categorization?

They compare stimuli to familiar examples from memory. Signup and view all the answers

In semantic networks, how are categories organized?

From general to more specific Signup and view all the answers

What does the linguistic relativity hypothesis suggest?

Language shapes the way we perceive the world. Signup and view all the answers

What are algorithms in problem-solving?

Detailed sequences of rules to follow. Signup and view all the answers

If a bat costs $1.00 more than a ball, and together they cost $1.10, how much does the ball cost?

$0.10 Signup and view all the answers

What is a mental set?

A result of rote learning without understanding Signup and view all the answers

In the Nine Dot Problem, what is the key challenge?

Not lifting the pen off the paper while connecting the dots Signup and view all the answers

What does functional fixedness refer to?

Inability to see more than one use for an object Signup and view all the answers

What is the conjunction fallacy in the representative heuristic?

Believing specific conditions are less likely than general conditions Signup and view all the answers

What does base-rate neglect mean?

Favoring descriptive information over statistical likelihood Signup and view all the answers

In the Monty Hall Problem, why might you want to switch your choice?

It increases your chances of winning the car Signup and view all the answers

What aspect does the gambler's fallacy relate to?

Believing past events influence future outcomes Signup and view all the answers

What strategy does the representative heuristic use to make judgments?

Evaluating scenarios based on how well they match prototypes Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary assumption of nativist theory regarding language acquisition?

Humans are genetically predisposed to develop language effortlessly. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of an overgeneralization in language use by children?

Saying 'goed' instead of 'went'. Signup and view all the answers

What does the interactionist theory emphasize in language development?

The necessity of social interaction for proper language development. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following animals learned to use a lexigram board to communicate?

Kanzi the bonobo. Signup and view all the answers

What unique ability was demonstrated by dolphins in studies on language?

They can learn syntactic rules in an artificial gestural language. Signup and view all the answers

Which language ability was NOT demonstrated by Chaser, the border collie?

Ability to form complete sentences. Signup and view all the answers

What does the honeybee waggle dance primarily illustrate in terms of animal communication?

Referential communication through movement. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following options represents the concept of cultural transmission in animal communication?

Learning specific vocalizations such as whale songs. Signup and view all the answers

What is a morpheme?

The smallest meaningful unit of a language. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes phonemes?

The most basic unit of speech sounds. Signup and view all the answers

What defines a garden path sentence?

A sentence that leads you to an unintended interpretation. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the sensitive period in language acquisition?

It is a period where children's brains are primed to develop language skills. Signup and view all the answers

What does pragmatics study in language?

How context shapes meaning and informal language rules. Signup and view all the answers

Which theory suggests that children learn language structures through imitation?

Behaviorist theory. Signup and view all the answers

What challenge is presented by the Wernicke-Geschwind model of language?

It fails to account for the distributed nature of language functions in the brain. Signup and view all the answers

At what age do children typically experience a naming explosion in vocabulary?

20-24 months. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by 'fast mapping' in language development?

The rapid correlation between new words and their meanings. Signup and view all the answers

What is overgeneralization in language development?

Using a word too broadly according to grammatical rules. Signup and view all the answers

What does the availability heuristic primarily affect in decision making?

The ease of recalling examples from memory Signup and view all the answers

How can emotional memories influence the availability heuristic?

They can make certain events seem more frequent. Signup and view all the answers

What is one effect of framing questions regarding custody decisions?

It can lead to different outcomes based solely on wording. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of decision-making, what aspect does the term 'framing' refer to?

The choice of words used to present information. Signup and view all the answers

What role does media exposure play in the availability heuristic?

It increases the likelihood of recalling specific events. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary outcome difference between Program A and Program B in terms of lives saved?

Program A guarantees saving 200 people. Signup and view all the answers

What is the probability of saving no one under Program B?

Two-thirds Signup and view all the answers

How does belief perseverance affect the interpretation of challenging information?

It results in reinterpreting information to fit current beliefs. Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon describes the tendency to only accept evidence that confirms one's beliefs?

Confirmation Bias Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of language involves symbols that are combined in a rule-based form?

Properties of Language Signup and view all the answers

What best describes the difference between prototypes and exemplars in categorization?

Prototypes provide information about typicality and exemplars about variability. Signup and view all the answers

Which categorization method defines membership based on strict criteria?

Rule-based categorization Signup and view all the answers

How does the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis suggest language influences perception?

Language influences expectations and attention. Signup and view all the answers

What role does spreading activation play in semantic networks?

It facilitates retrieval of related concepts by activating network connections. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of the nativist theory of language acquisition?

Humans have a genetic predisposition for language development. Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of language development does the interactionist theory focus on?

The interplay of biology and social experience. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes graded membership in categories?

Members vary in their typicality relative to the category. Signup and view all the answers

What was a notable finding from studies on Koko, the gorilla?

She learned a significant number of signs in American Sign Language. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best reflects the universalist view of language and thought?

All humans share a common repertoire of thought influencing languages. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary feature of algorithms in problem-solving?

They offer a structured process of rule-following to reach a solution. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of language communication is exemplified by the honeybee waggle dance?

Referential communication. Signup and view all the answers

How is categorization by prototypes different from other methods?

It classifies members by resemblance to an average example. Signup and view all the answers

In terms of language use, what is the primary significance of cross-fostering studies?

They help understand the impact of social environment on language acquisition. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes overgeneralizations in children's language use?

They reflect a child's effort to explore language beyond learned structures. Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant limitation identified in the study of Nim, the chimpanzee?

The effectiveness of the sign language method was questioned. Signup and view all the answers

What forms the basis of 'cultural transmission' in animal communication?

The learned vocalizations that are passed down generations. Signup and view all the answers

What does functional fixedness prevent an individual from doing in problem-solving?

Recognizing multiple uses of an object Signup and view all the answers

In the context of the representative heuristic, what does the conjunction fallacy suggest?

Specific instances are perceived as more likely than broad categories Signup and view all the answers

What does base-rate neglect lead individuals to ignore?

General characteristics of the population Signup and view all the answers

In solving the Nine Dot Problem, what is a common mistake made by people?

Not visualizing solutions beyond conventional boundaries Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary implication of the Monty Hall Problem regarding decision-making?

Shifting choices can increase the probability of success Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the representative heuristic's method of making judgments?

Evaluating similarity to prototypical examples in categories Signup and view all the answers

What cognitive error does the gambler's fallacy represent?

Assuming previous events affect future probabilities independently Signup and view all the answers

How does a mental set influence problem-solving abilities?

Limits creative approaches to familiar situations Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of syntax in language?

To provide rules for combining words into meaningful phrases Signup and view all the answers

What commonly observed phenomenon occurs when infants lose the ability to discriminate all phonemes?

Experience-dependent plasticity Signup and view all the answers

What is a notable feature of garden path sentences?

They can mislead readers into incorrect interpretations based on early words. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the critical period for language acquisition?

It is the age range when exposure to language must occur for normal development. Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon occurs when children apply rules of language too broadly, such as saying 'goed' instead of 'went'?

Overgeneralization Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of language development is referred to as 'fast mapping'?

The ability to learn vocabulary rapidly through immersion. Signup and view all the answers

What are the non-linguistic aspects of language referred to as?

Pragmatics Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the limitations of the Wernicke-Geschwind model of language?

It suggests that language functions are strictly localized. Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential cognitive cost of being bilingual?

Decreased word recall ability in adulthood Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the smallest meaningful units of language?

Morphemes Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Thought and Language

Concepts are mental representations of objects, events, or ideas.
Categories are clusters of interrelated concepts.

Categories by Definition

Rule-based categorization is definition-based.
Membership in a category is all-or-none, and all members are equal.

Typicality Effects

Graded Membership: members of a category vary in typicality.
Sentence verification technique: measures how quickly people verify a sentence that involves a category member (e.g., "Is a robin a bird?" vs. "Is a penguin a bird?")

Categorization by Prototype

Prototypes are mental representations of an average category member.
Categorization is based on resemblance.
Explains graded membership; some members of a category are more typical than others.

Prototypes vs. Exemplars

Exemplars are specific examples from memory.
Prototypes provide information about typicality.
Exemplars provide information about variability within a category.

Semantic Networks

Categories and concepts are organized from general to more specific.
Superordinate: a higher-level category (e.g., Animal).
Basic: a middle-level category (e.g., Bird).
Subordinate: a lower-level category (e.g., Robin).

Spreading Activation

Lexical Decision Task: participants decide whether strings of letters are words.
Words that are closely related tend to be processed more quickly.
Concepts activate related concepts, spreading activation through a network.

Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

Language influences how we experience the world.
Categorical Perception: faster and more accurate discrimination of stimuli that straddle a color boundary.

Universalist View

Common repertoire of thought and perception influences all languages.
Languages guide attention and shapes cognition.
Languages evolve predictably.

Problem Solving

Algorithms: strategies based on following a series of rules.
Anagrams and Mathematical problems can be approached with algorithmic solutions.
Heuristics: strategies that rely on prior experiences.. Provide shortcuts or rules of thumb that can make problem solving more efficient.

Mental Set

Rote learning of problem-solving strategies can lead to a mental set.
This can prevent the development of a deeper understanding of the problem or finding alternative solutions.

The Nine Dot Problem

Connect nine dots using only four straight lines without lifting your pen off the paper.
Requires overcoming a problem-solving set to find the solution.

Functional Fixedness

Occurs when individuals can only think of an object's most obvious function.
Prevents finding alternative solutions.
Example: a candle box can be used to hold a candle in place to secure it on a wall; this solution may require individuals to think outside the box.

Representative Heuristic

Making judgments of likelihood based on how well an example represents a specific category.
Includes conjunction fallacy, law of small numbers, gambler's fallacy, and probability substitution.

Base-rate Neglect

Participants ignore base rate information when making judgments.
Instead, they focus on the representativeness of individual cases.

Monty Hall Problem

Suppose you're on a game show and have to pick one of three doors.
Behind one door is a car; behind the others are goats.
After you pick a door, the host opens another door to reveal a goat
Do you switch doors or stay with your original choice?
Switching doors increases your odds of winning the car.

Availability Heuristic

Estimating the frequency of an event based on how easily examples come to mind.
Constant media exposure can influence perceived frequency.

Emotional-Based Decisions

Emotional memories play a significant role in availability heuristics.
Vivid or emotionally charged events are more likely to be recalled.

Framing

Framing questions or outcomes can influence decisions.
Framing affects how information is perceived and interpreted.

Staying in Our Ideological Bubble

Tendency to accept evidence consistent with beliefs and ignore contradictory information.
Confirmation bias is a strong factor in this tendency.
Confirmation bias and belief perseverance maintain and reinforce current beliefs or ideas.
Information consistent with existing beliefs is more accessible.

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to favor evidence that confirms existing beliefs.
Confirmation bias makes information processing selectively biased towards confirming current beliefs and ideas.

The Four Card Task

A problem-solving task designed to measure reasoning ability on logical problems.
Individuals tend not to consider disconfirming evidence.
Logic problems are a good way to identify biases in how we approach problems and solution finding.

Confirmation Bias/Belief Perseverance

The stubbornness of holding onto beliefs even when faced with contradictory evidence, which often affects how individuals interpret information.

Properties of Language

Language involves spoken, written, and/or gestural symbols combined in rule-based form.
Unique Features: Semanticity, Productivity, Displacement, Socially Learned.

Phonemes

Phonemes are the basic units of sound in a language.
Experience-dependent plasticity affects speech perception development.
The vocal tract can produce 200 different sounds in human speech.

Morphemes

The smallest meaningful units of language (e.g., prefixes, suffixes, root words).
English has approximately 50,000 morphemes.
Morphemes are combined to create words and phrases in a given language.

Semantics

The meaning of words and how they are understood in context.
Ambiguity can affect understanding.

Syntax

The rules for combining words and morphemes into meaningful phrases and sentences.
Evaluated on a word-by-word basis, but overall meaning is often determined before all information is processed.

Garden Path Sentences

Sentences intentionally designed to mislead using early words in a sentence.
Lead to unintended interpretations.
Demonstrates how we interpret sentences in a word-by-word manner and are sometimes misled.

Pragmatics

The non-linguistic aspects of language usage (e.g., context, tone, social assumptions).
The way context affects meaning and interpretation in language.

Language and the Brain

Wernicke-Geschwind Model: a model of language in the brain.
Specific brain areas are linked to specific functions in language.
Aphasias: disorders of language resulting from brain damage.
Language processing requires interaction among many areas in the brain.

Language Development

Newborns distinguish function and content words.
Receptive vocabulary (understanding) precedes productive vocabulary (speaking).
Naming explosion is a rapid increase in vocabulary during early childhood.

Learning the Rules of Language

Predictable errors occur during language development (e.g., overextension, underextension, overgeneralization).
Development is a process of learning the rules.

Abstract Aspects of Language

Metalinguistic awareness: understanding how language is used.
Children develop awareness of irony, sarcasm, and other complex language usages between the ages of 6 and 8.

Language Acquisition

Sensitive period: a time during childhood when language skills develop readily.
Skills fade starting roughly during the seventh year of life, with some exceptions.

Critical Period for Language (Genie case study)

Biological maturation of brain plays a role in language development.
Exposure to language within the first 12 years is vital for normal development.
Critical periods may not be absolute.

Learning Multiple Languages

Bilingual children usually have a smaller vocabulary initially, but some studies have identified cognitive benefits.
Possible benefits include improved executive functions, and potential health benefits.

Theories of Language Acquisition

Behaviorist theory: language acquisition is learned through imitation and reinforcement.
Nativist theory: humans have an innate predisposition for language acquisition.
Interactionist theory: language development involves both biological and environmental factors.
Theories provide different perspectives as to how language is learned and developed.

Is Language Unique to Humans?

Cross-fostering studies show limited linguistic ability in non-human primates compared with human linguistic capabilities.
Apes may use sign language, but it does not demonstrate true symbolic language comprehension.
Animal communication has qualities of language and certain animal vocalisations can transmit important information in specific contexts, although a fully symbolic system like humans have is not yet seen in animals.

Language Use in Other Animals

Some animals demonstrate complex communication but lack the full symbolic system of human language.

Complex Animal Communication

Animals communicate using a variety of sophisticated methods (e.g., honeybee waggle dance, referential alarm calls).
Language is a spectrum of behaviours that is present in humans and animals.

Vocal Learning Species

Some animals, like humans, need to learn typical vocalizations for communication.
Cultural transmission of vocalizations may be observed across species.

Is Human Language Unique?

Human language has unique features, compared with animals' communication.
Language is a complex communication system in humans, with specific features that are not yet fully replicated in other animal species.

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Description

This quiz explores key concepts in psychology related to heuristics and cognitive biases, including the availability heuristic, framing effects, and confirmation bias. Test your understanding of how these phenomena influence decision-making and public perception. Dive into the fascinating relationship between emotional memories and cognitive processes.