Psychology Chapter on Behaviorism and Reflexes

Russian Objective Psychology

• Ivan Sechenov aimed to explain all mental processes through associationism and materialism. He believed that thoughts don't cause behavior, and both internal and external behaviors are reflexes triggered by external stimuli. Sechenov also proposed that inhibition plays a crucial role in the brain, and human development involves gaining control over reflexive behaviors.

• Ivan Pavlov, a Nobel Prize-winning physiologist, discovered conditioned reflexes while studying digestion. He noticed that objects or events associated with food also triggered gastric secretions, calling them "conditional" as they depended on other factors. The term "conditional" was later translated as "conditioned."

• Pavlov's classical conditioning involves associating a biologically neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that naturally elicits an unconditioned response (UR). This pairing leads the NS to acquire the ability to elicit a similar response, now called the conditioned response (CR).

• Pavlov further explored excitation and inhibition in the nervous system, suggesting that all central nervous system activity involves either excitation or inhibition. He called the dynamic interplay of these processes at any given moment the "cortical mosaic."

• Extinction and spontaneous recovery were also observed by Pavlov. Extinction occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is no longer followed by the unconditioned stimulus (US), causing a reduction in the conditioned response (CR) over time.

• Spontaneous recovery refers to reappearance of the CR after a period of extinction, suggesting that learning is not completely erased.

• Experimental neurosis arises when conflicting excitatory and inhibitory tendencies are present. Pavlov demonstrated this by slowly shifting a circle (rewarded) towards an ellipse (not rewarded), leading to behavioral breakdown in animals. He found four types of responses associated with this phenomenon.

• Pavlov proposed two signal systems:

  • First-signal system: Signals stimuli (conditioned stimuli) that represent biologically significant events.
  • Second-signal system: Involves the ability to respond to symbols of physical events, particularly language and words.

• While skeptical of psychologists, Pavlov appreciated Edward Thorndike's research for its objectivity and systematic approach. He viewed Thorndike's law of effect as critical to the success of associationism.

John B. Watson and Behaviorism

• John B. Watson publicly announced his behavioristic views in 1908, facing significant criticism. In 1913, Watson presented his "Behaviorist Manifesto," outlining the core tenets of behaviorism:

  • Psychology is a natural science relying on objective methods.
  • The goal is to predict and control behavior.
  • Introspection is excluded.
  • No distinction exists between human and animal behavior.

• He believed in a purely objective approach to psychology, emphasizing the prediction and control of behavior. He identified four types of behavior:

  • Explicit learned behavior: Observable behaviors like talking or writing.
  • Implicit learned behavior: Internal responses like increased heart rate.
  • Explicit unlearned behavior: Inborn reflexes like grasping or sneezing.
  • Implicit unlearned behavior: Internal processes like glandular secretions.

• Watson proposed four methods for studying behavior:

  • Observation: Naturalistic or controlled.
  • Conditioned-reflex method: Based on Pavlov and Bechterev's work.
  • Testing: Samples of behavior, not evaluations of capacity or personality.
  • Verbal reports: Treated as any other overt behavior.

• Watson viewed language and thinking as forms of behavior. He considered speech as overt behavior and thought as a form of subvocal speech.

• Watson believed humans inherit only a few basic reflexes, with experience largely shaping behavior. He considered a few basic emotions – fear, rage, and love – as innate, but proposed that learning determines their elicitation by various stimuli.

• The Little Albert experiment demonstrated the conditioning of emotional responses in humans. This pioneering research is considered a prime example of behavior therapy.

• Watson advocated for an objective approach to child-rearing with minimal displays of affection, treating children like adults, and providing sex education.

• Watson emphasized that learning occurs through contiguity and frequency, meaning that events are associated in time, leading to behavior conditioning. He also incorporated the law of recency: more recent associations are more likely to be remembered.

• Eventually, Watson adopted a position of physical monism, rejecting the existence of mental events (consciousness) altogether.

Russian Objective Psychology

• Ivan Sechenov:
  • Studied how all psychic phenomena could be explained through materialism and associationism.
  • Believed thoughts don't cause behavior, both internal and external behaviors are triggered by external stimuli.
  • Emphasized the role of inhibition in controlling reflexive behavior.
• Ivan Pavlov:
  • Won the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his work on the digestive system.
  • Discovered the conditioned reflex while studying the digestive system.
  • Observed that objects associated with food also triggered gastric secretions.
• Classical Conditioning:
  • Developed by Pavlov.
  • An unconditioned response is triggered by an unconditioned stimulus.
  • Through associating a neutral stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus and elicits a conditioned response.
  • Example: Food (US) elicits salivation (UR). When paired with footsteps (NS), the footsteps (CS) elicit salivation (CR).
• Excitation and Inhibition:
  • Pavlov believed all central nervous system activity can be characterized as either excitation or inhibition.
  • The pattern of excitation and inhibition at any given moment is called the cortical mosaic.
• Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery:
  • If the conditioned stimulus is no longer followed by the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response will eventually be extinguished.
  • Spontaneous recovery occurs when the conditioned response reappears after a period of time following extinction.
• Experimental Neurosis:
  • Occurs when contradictory excitatory and inhibitory tendencies are presented.
  • For example, an animal trained to receive a reward for a circle and no reward for an ellipse will experience breakdown in behavior as the circle is gradually changed into an ellipse.
• Signal Systems:
  • Developed by Pavlov and comprised of the "first-signals of reality" (stimuli associated with biologically significant events) and the "signals of signals" (symbols that represent physical events).
  • Pavlov acknowledged Thorndike's research and its contribution to his study of associationism.

John B. Watson and Behaviorism

• In his 1913 lecture, Watson laid out the basic tenets of behaviorism:
  • Psychology is an objective and experimental science.
  • The goal of psychology is to predict and control behavior.
  • Introspection plays no part in the method.
  • No distinction exists between human and animal behavior.
• Watson's objective psychology focused on the prediction and control of behavior and categorized it into:
  • Explicit (overt) learned behavior: Talking, writing, etc.
  • Implicit (covert) learned behavior: Increased heart rate caused by fear.
  • Explicit unlearned behavior: Grasping, blinking, sneezing, etc.
  • Implicit unlearned behavior: Glandular secretions
• Methods of Research
  • Observation (naturalistic or controlled)
  • Conditioned-reflex method
  • Testing (samples of behavior)
  • Verbal reports (treated as any other overt behavior)
• Watson believed that language and thinking were forms of behavior. Speech is overt behavior, while thinking is subvocal speech.
• Humans inherit a few basic reflexes but develop complex behaviors through experience.
• Watson proposed that humans inherit the emotions of fear, rage, and love, and these emotions are conditioned to be elicited by various stimuli through learning.
• His research with Little Albert demonstrated the conditioning of emotional responses and their counterconditioning.
• Watson believed that children should be raised in an objective manner, without excessive displays of affection.
• He emphasized the importance of sex education for children.
• Learning is a matter of contiguity and frequency: Events associated in time produce conditioning and the law of recency applies.
• Watson ultimately adopted a physical monism position, rejecting the existence of mental events entirely.

Russian Objective Psychology

• Ivan Sechenov believed that psychic phenomena were based on associationism and materialism.
• He proposed that both internal and external behaviors are reflexive, triggered by external stimulation.
• Sechenov emphasized the importance of inhibitory mechanisms in the brain in regulating behavior.
• He believed that human development involved the gradual control of reflexive behavior through inhibition.

Ivan Pavlov

• Pavlov's work on the physiology of digestion led to the discovery of the conditioned reflex.
• He observed that objects or events associated with food could also trigger gastric secretions, referred to as "conditional" reflexes.
• Pavlov developed Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning:
  • An Unconditioned Response (UR), an innate reflex, is elicited by an Unconditioned Stimulus (US).
  • A Conditioned Response (CR) is learned through contiguity and frequency.
  • A Neutral Stimulus (NS), paired with the US, becomes the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and elicits the learned CR.
• Pavlov's research exemplified the principle of contiguity: the closer in time two events occur, the stronger the association between them.

Pavlov's Contributions

• Excitation and Inhibition: proposed all central nervous system activity could be characterized by excitation or inhibition. He called the pattern of these activities, a cortical mosaic.
• Extinction: repeated presentation of the CS without the US leads to a weakening of the CR.
• Spontaneous Recovery: after extinction, the CR may reappear after a rest period.
• Experimental Neurosis: conflict between excitatory and inhibitory tendencies leads to a breakdown in behavior, showing inflexibility to stimuli.
• Signal Systems:
  • First-signal system: stimuli that signal biologically significant events.
  • Second-signal system: symbols (language) that refer to physical events.
• Pavlov advocated for a scientific approach to psychology, praising Thorndike's objective research methods.

John B. Watson and Behaviorism

• Watson was a pioneer of behaviorism, a school of thought that emphasizes the study of observable behavior rather than mental processes.
• In his 1913 "Behaviorist Manifesto," Watson outlined the key tenets of behaviorism:
  • Psychology should be an objective, experimental science.
  • The goal of psychology should be the prediction and control of behavior.
  • Introspection (examining one's own thoughts and feelings) is not a valid method of study.
  • There is no fundamental difference between human and animal behavior.
• Watson rejected the concepts of "mind" and "consciousness," believing that they were unnecessary for understanding behavior.

Watson's Contributions

• Watson's objective psychology focused on the prediction and control of behavior. He identified four types of behavior:
  • Explicit learned behavior: talking, writing.
  • Implicit learned behavior: increased heart rate in response to a feared stimulus.
  • Explicit unlearned behavior: grasping, blinking, sneezing.
  • Implicit unlearned behavior: glandular secretions.
• Watson proposed four methods of research for behaviorism:
  • Observation (naturalistic or controlled).
  • Conditioned reflex method (as described by Pavlov and Bechterev).
  • Testing (measuring behavior samples).
  • Verbal reports (treated as any other overt behavior).
• Watson believed language and thinking were forms of behavior:
  • Speech was overt behavior, while thinking was implicit or subvocal speech.

Watson's Views

• Watson embraced radical environmentalism, believing human behavior was primarily shaped by environmental influences.
• He identified three basic emotions inherited by humans: fear, rage, and love. All other emotions were believed to be derived from these.
• Through conditioning, these basic emotions could be learned to be elicited by various stimuli beyond their natural triggers.
• Watson's famous Little Albert experiment demonstrated the conditioning of fear in humans.
• This research also exemplified an early form of behavior therapy (counterconditioning).

Watson's Social Views

• Watson advocated for objective parenting:
  • children should be raised with minimal displays of affection.
  • they should be treated more like adults.
  • he believed children should receive sex education.

Watson's Theories

• Watson's views on learning were based on the principles of contiguity and frequency:
  • the law of recency: the more recently an event occurred, the stronger the association.
• Watson's physical monism argued that mental events were not real, instead proposing that all behavior is ultimately reducible to physical events.