Psychology Chapter: Classical Conditioning

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Questions and Answers

What is latent learning as demonstrated by Tolman's experiments with rats?

Learning that occurs only when rewards are consistently provided.

Learning that involves direct instruction from a trainer.

Learning without reinforcement that is demonstrated when a reward is introduced. (correct)

Learning that is immediately observable through behavior.

What is one crucial element of the gestalt approach to problem solving?

Reconstructing the understanding of a problem to find a solution. (correct)

Understanding the problem through prior experiences solely.

Mechanistic analysis of each step in a problem.

Following a predetermined series of steps to reach a solution.

How did the unreinforced rats perform when a food reward was introduced after several trials?

They became confused and failed to find the food at all.

They demonstrated quicker navigation through the maze, similar to the rewarded group. (correct)

They continued to wander aimlessly in the maze.

Their speed in navigating the maze decreased due to distraction.

What is an insight problem characterized by?

A sudden realization or 'A ha!' moment leading to a solution. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the term 'cognitive map' as used in Tolman's research?

A mental representation of the layout and features of an environment. Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of shaping in behavior modification?

To break down behaviors into achievable steps Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a primary reinforcer?

Food Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes secondary reinforcers from primary reinforcers?

They must be learned or associated with primary reinforcers Signup and view all the answers

Which reinforcement schedule involves providing reinforcement every time a behavior is displayed?

Continuous reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

What happens to a behavior when reinforcement stops?

The behavior ceases entirely Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a schedule of reinforcement that is NOT continuous?

Fixed interval reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

In shaping, after reinforcing a response that closely resembles the desired behavior, what is the next step?

Reinforce a response that is even closer to the desired behavior Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by intermittent reinforcement?

Receiving reinforcement randomly rather than every time Signup and view all the answers

What is the expected outcome when a reinforcer is stopped in a fixed interval schedule?

Fast extinction rate Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during positive punishment?

An undesirable stimulus is added Signup and view all the answers

Which term best describes the process of making a behavior automatic through repetition?

Motor learning Signup and view all the answers

In which of the following modeling steps must the learner memorize the actions of the model?

Retention Signup and view all the answers

What type of model describes a fictional character demonstrating behavior?

Symbolic model Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is essential for a learner to be motivated to imitate a behavior observed in a model?

Vicarious reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

What is the main goal of positive punishment in a video game setting?

To prevent players from entering a forbidden area Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly defines observational learning?

Learning by watching others and imitating their behavior Signup and view all the answers

What effect does vicarious punishment have on a learner's behavior?

It decreases the motivation to display the same behavior. Signup and view all the answers

According to Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment, when children observe a model who is punished for aggressive behavior, what are they most likely to do?

Be less likely to behave aggressively towards the doll. Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of child abuse victims are reported to become abusive parents?

30% Signup and view all the answers

What does research suggest about the relationship between violent media exposure and aggression in children?

Exposure to violent media correlates with increased aggressive thoughts and behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT commonly associated with aggressive behavior in children, according to the content?

High academic performance Signup and view all the answers

In the context of cognitive learning theory, can learning occur without any form of punishment or reward?

Yes, learning can occur through observation alone. Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of Classical Conditioning?

Learning to make an involuntary response to a non-normal stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the main consequences for children who witness their parents dealing with anger through violence?

They are more likely to mimic the aggressive behavior they observed. Signup and view all the answers

Which term refers to a stimulus that automatically elicits a response?

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Signup and view all the answers

What key aspect did Ferguson's research highlight about the link between violent media and aggression?

It emphasized the role of family life and other risk factors. Signup and view all the answers

What happens to a neutral stimulus after it is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus?

It becomes a conditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true about the unconditioned response (UCR)?

It is a natural reaction to an unconditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

In Classical Conditioning, what is the response caused by the conditioned stimulus (CS) called?

Conditioned response (CR) Signup and view all the answers

Which psychologist is famous for his research on Classical Conditioning?

Ivan Pavlov Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the neutral stimulus (NS) in the process of Classical Conditioning?

It does not elicit an automatic response initially. Signup and view all the answers

What key aspect distinguishes an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) from a conditioned stimulus (CS)?

The UCS elicits a response naturally, while the CS does not. Signup and view all the answers

What is an unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?

A stimulus that naturally elicits a response Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following principles is essential for effective classical conditioning?

The CS must be attention capturing Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by stimulus discrimination?

Distinguishing between different stimuli based on response Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during stimulus generalization?

Conditioned responses are made to similar stimuli Signup and view all the answers

What happens when the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus?

The conditioned response is eliminated Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about the timing of the CS and UCS is false?

The UCS can occur independently of the CS Signup and view all the answers

How do Pavlov's dogs demonstrate stimulus discrimination?

They only salivate to the tone associated with food Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes an unconditioned response?

A response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Learning: A Definition

Learning is a permanent behavioral change from experience or practice.

Types of Learning

Behavior modification: Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, skill learning, observational learning, cognitive learning theory.

Classical Conditioning

Learning to associate an involuntary response with a new stimulus.
"Learning to make an involuntary response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces the response" (Ciccarelli & White, 2021, p. 194).
Classical conditioning was investigated by Pavlov (late 19th-early 20th century) and later John B. Watson (20th century)

Elements of Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that produces a reflexive response automatically.
Unconditioned Response (UCR): The natural, automatic response to a UCS (e.g., salivating to food).
Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially does not elicit the UCR.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): An initially neutral stimulus paired with the UCS, eventually eliciting the CR.
Conditioned Response (CR): A learned response to the CS.

Classical Conditioning: In Action

During pairing, a NS is repeatedly presented with the UCS
The NS eventually becomes the CS eliciting the CR
The CS stimulus elicits a response, called the CR
There are principles of Conditioning, like order of presentation, timing, and repetition which need to be considered

Principles of Classical Conditioning

CS must precede the UCS
The time gap between CS and UCS needs to be short
CS needs to be attention capturing
There are exceptions

Stimulus Discrimination

Different response to different stimuli (similar stimuli).
Pavlov's dogs distinguished between the sound leading to food and other sounds (like a bell).
Organism learns to distinguish similar stimuli

Stimulus Generalization

Similar stimuli tend to evoke similar responses.
The more similar a stimulus is to the CS, the more likely a CR is.

Extinction

The decrease of a CR when the UCS is no longer presented with the CS.
The CR gradually disappears.
Spontaneous recovery is the return of a CR after a rest period.

Higher-Order Conditioning

A previously conditioned stimulus (first-order CS) acts as a new UCS to establish a new conditioned stimulus

Operant Conditioning

Consequences influence future behavior.
Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior, punishment decreases it.

Types of Reinforcement and Punishment

Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., praise for good grades).
Negative Reinforcement: Removing an undesirable stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., taking aspirin to remove a headache).
Positive Punishment: Adding an undesirable stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., a speeding ticket for speeding).
Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., taking away a teenager's phone).

Shaping

Rewarding successive approximations of desired behavior (making a behavior more accurate).
Break down complex behaviors into smaller, achievable steps, reinforcing each.

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

Primary reinforcers: Innate reinforcing qualities (e.g., food, water).
Secondary reinforcers: Gain reinforcing qualities through association with primary reinforcers (e.g., money, grades).

Reinforcement Schedules

Continuous reinforcement: Reinforce every desired response.
Partial reinforcement: Reinforce some, but not all, desired responses. (Fixed interval, variable interval, fixed ratio, variable ratio schedules)
The patterns of response rate varies depending on type,

Extinction (for operant conditioning)

If reinforcement stops, behavior stops
Variable ratio schedule yields slow extinction rate, fixed interval yields fast high rate

Behavior Modification: Decreasing Behavior

Positive Punishment: Adding an undesirable stimulus to decrease an undesired behavior.
Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease an undesired behavior

Skill Learning (Motor Learning)

Repeatedly performing to make behavior automatic.
Examples include activities like knitting, driving, and biking

Observational Learning

Learning through observing others.
Includes imitating (modeling).
People can serve as models in any of the following ways: Live, verbal and symbolic

Steps in the Modeling Process

Attention (paying attention to the model).
Retention (remembering the model's behavior).
Reproduction (ability to reproduce the modeled behavior).
Motivation (to imitate the behavior).

Motivation in Observational Learning

Vicarious reinforcement: The model's behavior is reinforced, motivating the learner to perform the same behavior.
Vicarious punishment: The model's behavior is punished, hindering the learner from reproducing this behavior.

Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment

Demonstrates observational learning and modeling, showing children's imitation of aggressive behavior.

Abuse and Observational Learning

Shows that observing others behaving aggressively can influence the behavior of the observer.

Cognitive Learning Theory & Latent Learning

Learning can occur without observable external reward or punishment (latent learning).
Using cognitive maps, latent learning shows that learning can occur even without apparent rewards.

The Gestalt Approach: Problem Solving

Insight learning is sudden realization of problem solutions.
Representation and reconstruction of existing knowledge important in insight problems).

Learned Helplessness

Lack of control over events can lead a person to give up, passively accepting negative events

References

Spielman et al (2020). Psychology. OpenStax
Ciccarelli and White (2021). Psychology

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Description

Explore the principles of classical conditioning in this quiz. Learn about key concepts such as unconditioned and conditioned stimuli, and the significance of behavioral changes through experience. This quiz is based on foundational theories established by Pavlov and Watson.