Psychology Chapter: Attitudes Overview
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Questions and Answers

What is the main mechanism by which children acquire new behaviors according to Bandura's social learning theory?

  • Classical conditioning
  • Trial and error learning
  • Reinforcement of previous actions
  • Observation and imitation (correct)

How does classical conditioning change attitudes without awareness?

  • By associating positive stimuli with neutral stimuli (correct)
  • By encouraging verbal feedback from peers
  • Through direct reinforcement of behaviors
  • By providing intrinsic motivation

What effect does repeated exposure to a novel stimulus typically have on a person's feelings towards it?

  • Has no significant effect on attitudes
  • Increases fear and avoidance
  • Decreases perceptual fluency
  • Enhances positive feelings and reduces fear (correct)

What happens to behavior that is rewarded according to operant conditioning?

<p>It becomes more likely to be repeated (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Based on Zajonc's findings, what is the relationship between exposure to foreign words and the attitudes formed towards them?

<p>More exposure correlates with more positive meanings (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the three components of attitudes known as ABC?

<p>Cognitive, Affective, Behavioral (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is true regarding explicit attitudes?

<p>They can conflict with implicit attitudes. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a defining characteristic of implicit attitudes?

<p>They are less accessible to conscious awareness. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a limitation of the Implicit Attitudes Test (ITA)?

<p>It is affected by the participant's first thought conditioning. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Gawronski's research suggest about people's awareness of their own implicit attitudes?

<p>People are aware and can access their implicit attitudes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do motivation and opportunity influence attitudes?

<p>They decrease the correlation between implicit and explicit attitudes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these statements best distinguishes explicit attitudes from implicit attitudes?

<p>Explicit attitudes involve awareness, while implicit attitudes do not. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the reliability concern of the ITA imply?

<p>Participants' responses can vary widely across retests. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes a cognitive miser's approach to decision-making?

<p>Relying on schemas and heuristics (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the Naïve Scientist differ from the Cognitive Miser in terms of cognitive resource usage?

<p>Engages in flexible thinking (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a factor in deciding whether to adopt a Cognitive Miser or Naïve Scientist approach?

<p>The availability of previous experiences (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of attribution does the Actor-Observer Bias primarily involve regarding one's own behavior?

<p>External/situational attributions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of Attribution Theory, what is a self-serving bias?

<p>Attributing good outcomes to oneself (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of a Naïve Scientist's thinking style?

<p>Analyzing every situation carefully (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes how cognitive misers make decisions?

<p>They avoid effortful thinking and simplify decisions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of attributions do people generally make for others' behaviors according to the Actor-Observer Bias?

<p>Internal/dispositional attributions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of schemas in our cognitive processing?

<p>To reduce cognitive load and save time (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes representative heuristics?

<p>They rely on similarity to existing mental categories. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do availability heuristics influence our perceptions?

<p>They make us judge events based on their memorability. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a key finding from Schwarz et al. (1991) regarding recall?

<p>Easier recall increases belief in the accuracy of information. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an illusory correlation?

<p>A belief that two unrelated events are linked. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about scripts is true?

<p>Scripts act more like schemas in saving time and cognitive load. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential drawback of using heuristics in decision-making?

<p>They can lead to oversimplified judgments based on limited information. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the familiarity of an event affect its perceived likelihood according to availability heuristics?

<p>More frequently heard events are assumed to be more common. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the self-serving bias primarily related to regarding children's and older people's attributions?

<p>Internal attributions for good outcomes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which cultural group is likely to attribute their success in winning medals to internal factors according to HUA & TAN (2012)?

<p>Western cultures (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do individuals with anxiety and depression typically perceive their successes and failures?

<p>They blame themselves for failures and attribute successes to external factors. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to EAVES & HATEMI (2008), what plays a small role in the development of attitudes?

<p>Social learning from parents (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following attitudes is NOT mentioned as being influenced by genetic factors?

<p>Attitudes towards climate change (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens when individuals are exposed to cigarette ads more frequently?

<p>Their liking for the ads increases. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does cognitive dissonance refer to?

<p>The discomfort caused by holding inconsistent thoughts. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a way to reduce cognitive dissonance?

<p>Ignore the conflicting cognitions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does choosing between two difficult alternatives have on one's perception of those alternatives, according to Brehm’s study?

<p>The chosen alternative increases in desirability. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When faced with cognitive dissonance, what is typically prioritized regarding self-image?

<p>Maintaining a positive self-image. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can engaging in a behavior like cheating influence one's attitudes, as shown in Mills' study?

<p>It can diminish the perceived severity of cheating. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following theories suggest that we infer our attitudes by observing our own behavior?

<p>Self-Perception Theory (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common effect of making a difficult choice between two alternatives?

<p>Cognitions become more aligned with the chosen option. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Attitude Components

Attitudes are made up of three parts: cognitive (thoughts), affective (feelings), and behavioral (actions).

Explicit Attitude

A consciously held and endorsed attitude, easily shared with others.

Implicit Attitude

An attitude operating unconsciously and outside of your awareness; can conflict with explicit attitudes.

Implicit Associations Test (IAT)

A test measuring response times to assess implicit attitudes.

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Social Desirability Bias (Explicit Attitude)

The tendency to give answers that are socially acceptable rather than honestly reflect personal beliefs, emotions, and behaviors.

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Implicit Attitude Reliability

The consistency of results when measuring implicit attitudes.

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Explicit vs Implicit Correlation

There's often a low correlation between how someone consciously describes their attitude (explicit) and their automatic attitude (implicit) because of different factors.

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Attitude Formation Factors

Motivation, opportunity, and content difference between implicit and explicit attitudes can impact whether you are able to express your attitude correctly.

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Cognitive Miser

A mental processing strategy that prioritizes efficiency over accuracy, relying on shortcuts like heuristics and schemas to conserve cognitive resources.

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Naïve Scientist

A mental processing strategy that seeks thorough understanding and evidence-based reasoning, prioritizing accuracy over speed.

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Motivational Tactician

A framework explaining when we use either the Cognitive Miser or Naïve Scientist approach, based on factors like time, resources, and importance of the decision.

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Attribution Theory

The theory explaining how we attribute causes to events, shaping our understanding and judgments.

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Actor-Observer Bias

Our tendency to attribute our own actions to external factors (situational), while attributing others' actions to internal factors (dispositional).

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Self-Serving Bias

Our tendency to attribute positive outcomes to internal factors (our abilities) and negative outcomes to external factors (bad luck).

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What is the main difference between the cognitive miser and naive scientist approaches?

The cognitive miser prioritizes efficiency and uses shortcuts, while the naive scientist prioritizes accuracy and uses more resources for thorough analysis.

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Why do we use different attributions for our own behavior and others' behavior?

We have more information about ourselves, want to maintain a positive self-image, and may be biased by our emotions regarding others.

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Self-Serving Bias in Age Groups

Children and older people tend to exhibit a stronger self-serving bias compared to middle-aged individuals.

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Cultural Differences in Self-Serving Bias

Some cultures, like the US, China, and Korea, display higher levels of self-serving bias.

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Self-Serving Bias in Psychopathology

People with anxiety or depression often exhibit a reversed self-serving bias, attributing failures to internal factors and successes to external factors.

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Attitudes: Implicit vs. Explicit

Attitudes can be implicit (unconscious, we are unaware of what's shaping them) or explicit (conscious, we are aware of what influences them).

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Schema

A mental model or representation of something, based on past experiences, that helps us understand and predict how things work. It's like a blueprint for your thinking and helps you anticipate situations.

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Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that help us make quick decisions or judgments. They are like simple guidelines for navigating complex situations.

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Representative Heuristic

A heuristic where we judge the likelihood of something belonging to a category based on how similar it is to our mental representation of that category. It's like judging a book by its cover.

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Availability Heuristic

A heuristic where we judge the likelihood of something based on how easily we can recall similar examples from our memory. We tend to think things that are easier to recall are more common.

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Schwarz et al. (1991) Experiment

A study that showed how the ease of recalling examples affects our belief in something. The easier it is to recall examples, the more likely we believe it to be true.

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Illusory Correlation

The tendency to believe there's a connection between two things, even if no actual relationship exists. It's like seeing patterns where there are none.

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Two Types of Thinking

We have two fundamental ways of thinking: one is automatic, fast, and effortless (System 1); the other is more deliberate, slower, and requires effort (System 2).

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System 1 Thinking

This is automatic, fast, and effortless thinking, often based on intuition and heuristics. It's the thinking we do most often without much conscious effort.

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Social Learning

Learning by observing and imitating others, like a child copying a parent's behavior.

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Classical Conditioning (Attitudes)

A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a positive or negative emotion, changing our attitude towards it.

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Operant Conditioning (Attitudes)

Our attitudes are influenced by rewards and punishments following our actions.

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Mere Exposure Effect

Repeated exposure to a neutral stimulus can create a positive attitude, even without awareness.

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Perceptual Fluency

How easily and quickly we process information about an object, leading to a positive attitude.

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Cognitive Dissonance

The uncomfortable feeling we experience when our beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors are inconsistent with each other.

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How do we reduce cognitive dissonance?

We can either change our behavior to match our beliefs, change our beliefs to match our behavior, or add new beliefs to justify our inconsistencies.

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Post-Decision Dissonance

After making a difficult choice, we tend to increase the desirability of the chosen option and decrease the desirability of the rejected option.

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Behavior can influence attitudes

Our actions can actually change our beliefs and attitudes, sometimes in ways we don't consciously intend.

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Brehm's Study (1956)

Participants were asked to rate the desirability of different products, then choose one. After the choice, the desirability of the chosen item increased, and the desirability of the rejected item decreased.

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Aronson & Mills (1959)

College students experienced a boring discussion session but were then asked to lie to others about the experience. The students who had to lie subsequently rated the discussion as more enjoyable.

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Self-Justification

The tendency to rationalize and defend our actions, even when they're ethically questionable or inconsistent with our beliefs, to maintain a positive self-image.

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Study Notes

Attitudes

  • Attitudes are composed of three components: cognitive, affective, and behavioral.
  • Cognitive component involves thoughts and beliefs about a target.
  • Affective component includes emotions, feelings, and reactions towards a target.
  • Behavioral component comprises actions and observable behaviors toward a target.
  • An attitude is an evaluation of people, objects, and ideas.

Types of Attitudes

  • Explicit Attitudes: These attitudes are consciously aware and endorsed. They are susceptible to social desirability bias (people might lie to others to present themselves favorably). Introspection and sharing with others is possible.
  • Implicit Attitudes: These attitudes are less accessible to conscious awareness; less control over them, and less susceptibility to social desirability bias. Implicit attitudes are subconscious and automatic and, potentially, conflict with conscious attitudes.

Implicit Attitudes Test (IAT)

  • Measured using reaction time and speed of response.
  • Measures implicit attitudes outside of conscious awareness.
  • Criticisms of the IAT include: validity issues (the test may not measure what it claims to measure, but could be measuring cultural associations), reliability problems (results vary greatly across retests), and potential issues with language differences (second-language speakers may have different results than native speakers).

Implicit and Explicit Attitudes Test

  • Research by Gawronski (2019) found people are aware of their own implicit attitudes.
  • A low correlation exists between implicit and explicit attitudes due to the impact of motivation, varying content, and ability to self-predict scores.

Schemas

  • Schemas are mental representations of everyday life experiences.
  • Function as mental blueprints.
  • Schemas are beliefs about how something is or should behave.
  • Schemas can also involve scripts, reducing cognitive load, saving time, allowing us to go beyond initially provided information, and based on past experiences (e.g., an individual learning to behave in a fast-food restaurant).

Heuristics

  • Heuristics are mental shortcuts, rules of thumb, and based on prior experiences.
  • Heuristics are used to reduce decision-making and problem-solving complexity.
  • Examples include rule-based decisions and quickly formulating attitudes.

Types of Heuristics

  • Representative Heuristics: Evaluating an object's similarity to a group, neglecting base rates.
  • Availability Heuristics: Judging likelihood based on how easily an example comes to mind, assuming more common events happen more often, and neglecting low-frequency events.

Two Types of Thinking

  • Cognitive Miser: Being reluctant to spend cognitive resources, relying on efficient and automatic systems, and avoiding mental effort. Examples include stereotypes and automatic judgments.
  • Naïve Scientist: Actively looking for explanations and conducting analyses, and relying on relevant data gathering instead of using mental shortcuts or schemas.

The Motivational Tactician Framework

  • This framework explains when we use cognitive miser or naïve scientist approaches.
  • Consideration made based on the time required, cognitive resources available, and the importance of the decision.

Attributions

  • Attributions are beliefs about why things happen.
  • Attribution theory explores why people seek to understand the causes of events.
  • Actor-Observer Bias: Making dispositional attributions for others and situational attributions for oneself.
  • Self-Serving Bias: Making internal attributions for success and external attributions for failure.

Origin of Attitudes

  • Attitudes can be implicit (unaware of their sources) or explicit (knowing their sources).
  • Genes, social learning, and experiences shape attitudes.
  • Social learning, attitudes towards issues like abortion, gay rights, the death penalty, jazz music and censorship are influenced by social learning from parents.
  • Genetics factors such as personality traits and physical attributes influence attitudes.
  • Social learning theory and classical conditioning are related processes.
  • Attitudes can be formed through direct exposure and experience.
  • Attitudes can be influenced by observing behavior or self-perception.
  • Classical conditioning involves pairing a positive or negative stimulus with a neutral stimulus to shape an attitude.
  • Repeated exposure to a stimulus can lead to a positive response, potentially increasing positive feelings and reducing fear.

Cognitive Dissonance

  • This is the discomfort of holding inconsistent thoughts or beliefs.
  • Dissonance occurs when behaviors contradict our views.
  • To reduce dissonance, we can change our behavior, change our beliefs, or add new beliefs to justify our actions..

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Week 5 Exam Notes - Attitudes, Schemas, Heuristics, and Behaviors PDF

Description

Explore the multifaceted nature of attitudes in psychology, focusing on their three components: cognitive, affective, and behavioral. Learn about the distinctions between explicit and implicit attitudes, as well as the methodologies used to measure them, such as the Implicit Attitudes Test (IAT). This quiz will deepen your understanding of how attitudes shape our evaluations of people, objects, and ideas.

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