Learning

Questions and Answers

What is the main focus of learning according to the information provided?

Predicting the future from past experiences (correct)

Improving social interactions

Enhancing emotional intelligence

Developing mechanical skills

Which term describes a reflex that occurs naturally without prior learning?

Reflexive Condition

Unconditioned Reflex (correct)

Acquired Response

Conditioned Response

What type of stimulus becomes associated with a conditioned response through learning?

Conditioned Stimulus (correct)

Reflexive Stimulus

Unconditioned Stimulus

Environmental Stimulus

Which law of association suggests that two events must occur close together in time to be connected in memory?

Law of Contiguity Signup and view all the answers

What does habituation refer to?

The decreasing strength of a reflex response after repeated presentations of the stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What is the initial stage of learning in classical conditioning called?

Acquisition Signup and view all the answers

Which assumption suggests that learning has a practical purpose and enhances survival?

Learning is adaptive Signup and view all the answers

According to Aristotle's theory of association, complex thoughts are made up of what?

Elementary perceptions Signup and view all the answers

What is taste aversion primarily associated with?

Unpleasant feelings like nausea Signup and view all the answers

What role does the amygdala play in the formation of phobias?

It is responsible for emotional responses independent of cortical involvement. Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of stimulus generalisation?

Responses occur to similar stimuli resembling the conditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during extinction in classical conditioning?

The conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is the optimal interstimulus interval for classical conditioning?

A few seconds or less Signup and view all the answers

How does spontaneous recovery occur?

It is the re-emergence of an extinguished conditioned response. Signup and view all the answers

What is blocking in classical conditioning?

Failure of a new stimulus to elicit a conditioned response due to a previously established stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of long-term potentiation (LTP) in neuronal connections?

To enhance the strength of connections between neurons. Signup and view all the answers

What does prepared learning refer to?

A biologically based readiness to learn certain associations more easily. Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is primarily implicated in contextual learning?

Hippocampus Signup and view all the answers

What does the law of effect state?

Behaviors are controlled by their consequences. Signup and view all the answers

What is the law of prediction in classical conditioning?

A conditioned stimulus will form an association only if it predicts the unconditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

How does positive reinforcement affect behavior?

It increases the likelihood of a behavior recurring. Signup and view all the answers

What does long-term potentiation (LTP) indicate?

Neurons exhibit an increased likelihood of firing after repeated stimulation. Signup and view all the answers

What is usually required for forward conditioning to be most effective?

The conditioned stimulus should precede the unconditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes superstitious behavior in operant conditioning?

It arises from random associations between behavior and reinforcement. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key feature of negative reinforcement?

It removes an unpleasant stimulus to increase a desired behavior. Signup and view all the answers

How does latent inhibition affect learning?

Familiar stimuli take longer to acquire a new association than novel stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

What does paradoxical conditioning illustrate?

The body's attempt to counteract the effects of a forthcoming stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of learning involves escaping from an existing unpleasant situation?

Escape learning Signup and view all the answers

How does positive punishment affect behaviors?

It involves the addition of an unpleasant consequence. Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during extinction in operant conditioning?

A previously reinforced behavior is no longer followed by its consequence. Signup and view all the answers

Which schedule of reinforcement offers rewards after a specific time period?

Fixed-interval schedule Signup and view all the answers

Which type of reinforcement is more effective for maintaining learned behaviors?

Intermittent reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

What can occur as a result of punishment when it is poorly implemented?

Fear of the punisher rather than the behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes a variable-ratio schedule from a fixed-ratio schedule?

The number of responses needed for reinforcement changes unpredictably. Signup and view all the answers

What defines observational learning?

Learning by observing the behavior of others Signup and view all the answers

Which factor does NOT influence the effectiveness of a model in modeling behavior?

Specific location of the model Signup and view all the answers

In vicarious conditioning, individuals learn about actions primarily through what?

Observing the consequences for others Signup and view all the answers

What term describes when a conditioned response (CR) is weakened due to repeated presentations of the conditioned stimulus (CS) without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?

Extinction Signup and view all the answers

What term is used to describe a response that has been learned in classical conditioning?

Conditioned response Signup and view all the answers

Which type of reinforcement involves the removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior recurring?

Negative reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

What does Thorndike’s law of effect state regarding behavior?

An animal's behavior is influenced by its past experiences Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of positive punishment?

Adding chores to discourage undesirable actions Signup and view all the answers

In operant conditioning, what does a fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement mean?

Reinforcement is given after a fixed amount of time Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?

CSs are learned, while UCSs are innate Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the stimulus generalization phenomenon?

Responses occur only to similar stimuli Signup and view all the answers

Which schedule of reinforcement results in unpredictable reinforcement based on the number of responses?

Variable-ratio schedule Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism by which operant conditioning influences behavior?

Through the consequences of actions directing future behavior Signup and view all the answers

The concept of extinction in operant conditioning refers to what?

Weakening of a behavior when it is no longer reinforced Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon describes the reduction in response strength after repeated exposure to a stimulus?

Habituation Signup and view all the answers

Which type of schedule of reinforcement involves rewards being given after a certain number of responses?

Ratio schedules Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the phenomenon where an organism learns to associate a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus?

Conditioned stimulus association Signup and view all the answers

What is the process called that strengthens a behavior through the removal of an aversive stimulus?

Negative reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

Which term refers to the understanding of one’s own psychological processes in the context of learning?

Insight Signup and view all the answers

What best describes learned helplessness?

Perception of lack of control over adverse events Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the tendency to explain negative events in a self-blaming manner?

Pessimistic explanatory style Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a social learning procedure where a person reproduces behavior observed in a model?

Modeling Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'locus of control' refer to?

Expectancy about personal influence on events Signup and view all the answers

What is the name given to the principle that two objects that resemble each other are likely to become associated in memory?

Law of similarity Signup and view all the answers

Which phenomenon occurs when a previously extinguished response re-emerges spontaneously?

Spontaneous recovery Signup and view all the answers

What is the process of teaching new behavior by reinforcing successive approximations to the desired response called?

Shaping Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of psychoneuroimmunology (PIN)?

Effects of behavior, nervous, and immune systems on health Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of cognitive–social theory?

The influence of cognition and social learning Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the expectation that one cannot escape aversive events?

Learned helplessness Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'chaining' refer to in operant conditioning?

Reinforcing a sequence of behaviors step-by-step Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of a fixed-ratio reinforcement schedule?

Reinforcement is based on the number of responses emitted Signup and view all the answers

Which process occurs when a conditioned response is weakened by the absence of an unconditioned stimulus?

Extinction Signup and view all the answers

What does 'discriminative stimulus' signify in operant conditioning?

A stimulus that signals specific reinforcement conditions Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by 'prepared learning' in the context of conditioning?

Conditioning that aligns with an organism's evolutionary history Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes a term on a Fixed Interval (FI) schedule of reinforcement?

Reinforcement is given after a fixed amount of time, regardless of responses. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of conditioning would be primarily associated with acquiring autonomic responses?

Classical conditioning Signup and view all the answers

In the context of operant conditioning, what does shaping involve?

Rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'contextual learning' refer to?

Learning the associations and their context simultaneously Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an aspect of cognitive–social theory regarding expectations?

Expectancies determine the likelihood of behaviors occurring Signup and view all the answers

Which schedule of reinforcement is typically associated with the highest rate of responding?

Variable Ratio (VR) Signup and view all the answers

Which term best describes the learning that occurs merely by observing someone else's actions?

Observational learning Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by 'discriminative stimuli' in operant conditioning?

Cues that help determine when a behavior will be reinforced. Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of 'learned helplessness' describe?

Expectation of failure leading to a lack of motivation to escape negative situations. Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant factor influencing operant conditioning as noted in the content?

The learner's prior behaviors Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best describes cognitive maps?

Mental images that represent learned behavior without reinforcement. Signup and view all the answers

How does an external locus of control differ from an internal locus of control?

It reflects reliance on external factors to shape outcome Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between internal and external locus of control?

Internal locus involves believing outcomes are due to one's own actions, while external locus attributes outcomes to external factors. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes 'biofeedback'?

A technique for monitoring physiological processes Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of 'successive approximations' in learning?

To develop a target response by reinforcing behaviors that increasingly resemble it. Signup and view all the answers

What does cognitive–social theory emphasize in the learning process?

The importance of cognitive processes and social interactions in learning. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines the term 'explanatory style'?

The way individuals interpret and rationalize experiences, particularly negative ones. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of schedule involves reinforcement that occurs after a variable number of responses?

Variable Ratio (VR) Signup and view all the answers

What is the essence of 'context' in behavioral economics?

Examining how external factors influence the availability of reinforcers and behavioral outcomes. Signup and view all the answers

What behaviour does insight in animals illustrate?

Sudden understanding of the relationship between problems and their solutions. Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic is common in individuals with antisocial personality disorder regarding operant conditioning?

Unresponsiveness to punishment and social reinforcements. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Learning Theories

Learning theory is essential to the behaviourist perspective, emphasizing how experiences shape behaviour.
Learning aids adaptation in both humans and animals, enabling better predictions based on past experiences.
Reflexes are automatic behaviours triggered by environmental stimuli; stimuli elicit responses.
Habituation describes the gradual weakening of reflex responses after repeated exposure to a stimulus.

Assumptions of Learning Theories

Experience shapes behaviour significantly.
Learning is inherently adaptive.
Controlled experimentation can reveal the laws governing learning.

Laws of Association

Aristotle introduced concepts explaining how thoughts are connected, leading to theories of learning and memory.
Associationism posits that complex thoughts arise from associations of elementary perceptions.

Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s model attributes classical conditioning to the identification of relationships between different stimuli.
An unconditioned reflex is a natural response that occurs without prior learning, activated by an unconditioned stimulus (UCS).
A conditioned response (CR) results from learning, established through associations with a conditioned stimulus (CS).
Taste aversion illustrates conditioned learning where a specific taste becomes associated with a negative experience, like nausea.

Phobias and Emotional Responses

Classical conditioning can explain irrational fears (phobias) through the association of neutral stimuli with negative outcomes.
Conditioned emotional responses occur when stimuli previously neutral become associated with emotional reactions.

Psychoneuroimmunology

This field studies the interplay between psychological factors and immune responses.
A conditioned immune response can develop when stimuli are correlated with immune system activity.

Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination

Stimulus generalization occurs when responses occur to similar stimuli, with maladaptive generalization leading to inappropriate reactions.
Stimulus discrimination refers to the ability to distinguish between different stimuli based on specific learned associations.

Extinction and Recovery in Conditioning

Extinction involves the weakening of CR when CS is presented without UCS.
Spontaneous recovery may occur, where a previously extinguished response re-emerges briefly.

Factors Influencing Classical Conditioning

The interstimulus interval affects conditioning; a brief temporal gap between CS and UCS leads to stronger associations.
Different conditioning methods (forward, simultaneous, backward) influence the effectiveness of learning.

Preparedness and Prediction

Certain associations are more readily learned due to evolutionary adaptations.
Law of prediction establishes that the formation of CS-UCS associations is contingent upon the CS predicting the UCS's occurrence.

Learning Mechanisms at the Synaptic Level

Long-term potentiation (LTP) indicates strengthened neuron connections following consistent stimulation, suggesting learning changes neural pathways.
Contextual learning emphasizes the role of environmental context in association learning.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is based on behaviour modification through environmental consequences.
The law of effect posits that behaviour is directed by its consequences, where operants produce specific environmental responses.

Reinforcement Types

Positive reinforcement includes presenting a stimulus to increase the likelihood of behaviour recurrence.
Negative reinforcement involves the removal of an aversive stimulus to promote behaviour.
Punishment (positive and negative) decreases the likelihood of behaviour but has limitations such as fear response or misidentification of punished behaviours.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement promotes quick acquisition of behaviours, while partial reinforcement is more effective for long-term retention.
Ratio and interval schedules determine the conditions under which reinforcement occurs, influencing response rates.

Discriminative Stimuli and Contextual Factors

Discriminative stimuli connect behaviours to consequences, impacting response consistency.
Behavioural economics evaluates the cost and benefit analysis involved in reinforcing behaviours in varied contexts.

Cognitive-social theory combines conditioning concepts with emphasis on cognition and social learning aspects.
Latent learning demonstrates knowledge acquisition without immediate reinforcement, revealing cognitive map utilization in behaviour.
Expectancies influence behaviour likelihood; internal locus of control suggests belief in personal impact on outcomes, while external locus suggests reliance on outside forces.
Learned helplessness describes expectancy of powerlessness, hindering motivation and learning.### Explanatory Style
Explanatory style affects perceptions of negative events and influences susceptibility to depression.
Pessimistic explanatory style attributes blame for bad events to oneself, considering these causes stable and global in nature.

Social learning occurs through observational learning and direct instruction.
Observational learning involves acquiring behavior by watching others, while modelling refers to reproducing observed behaviors.

Characteristics of Effective Models

Model's perceived status and similarity to the observer can impact learning effectiveness.
Liking the model enhances engagement and retention in the learning process.

Vicarious Conditioning

Individuals learn consequences of actions by observing others' experiences without direct engagement.
Direct tutelage involves verbal explanations to facilitate understanding of concepts.

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning involves linking a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR).
Concepts include:
- Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): initiates an automatic response.
- Conditioned stimulus (CS): acquires the ability to evoke a CR through association.
- Stimulus generalization: responding similarly to stimuli resembling the CS.
- Stimulus discrimination: responding only to specific stimuli.

Extinction and Influences

Extinction in classical conditioning occurs when the CS is presented without the UCS, weakening the CR over time.
Factors affecting conditioning include the interstimulus interval and individual learning history.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning, formulated by Skinner, involves learning behaviors through consequences.
A behavior's likelihood to recur is influenced by reinforcement (increases probability) or punishment (decreases probability).
Key reinforcement types:
- Positive reinforcement: adding a rewarding stimulus post-behavior.
- Negative reinforcement: removing an aversive stimulus enhances behavior recurrence.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement schedules provide the same consequence after every response.
Partial reinforcement schedules offer reinforcement intermittently, including:
- Fixed-ratio (FR): reinforcement after a set number of responses.
- Variable-ratio (VR): unpredictable number of responses for reinforcement.
- Fixed-interval (FI) and variable-interval (VI): reinforcement based on specific or variable time intervals.

Emphasizes cognitive aspects and social learning; incorporates expectations in behavioral likelihood.
Learning can manifest differently based on cognitive mapping and individual context.

Learned Helplessness and Locus of Control

Learned helplessness leads to passivity due to perceived lack of control over adverse events.
Locus of control categorizes individuals as either internal (believing they control outcomes) or external (attributing outcomes to outside forces).

Key Concepts in Learning Theory

Different learning phenomena observed include:
- Insight: ability to understand the connection between problems and solutions.
- Habituation: reduced response strength due to repeated stimulus exposure.
- Latent learning: knowledge acquired but not immediately expressed.

Other Relevant Terms

Antisocial personality disorder is characterized by irresponsible and disruptive behavior.
Biofeedback allows monitoring and voluntary control over autonomic functions.
Superstitious behavior arises from erroneous associations between actions and outcomes.

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Description

This quiz covers key concepts from Chapter 9.1 of psychology, focusing on learning theories and their importance within the behaviorist perspective. It explores concepts such as adaptation, prediction, reflexes, and stimuli that play a role in learning processes.