Learning

Learning Theories

• Learning theory is essential to the behaviourist perspective, emphasizing how experiences shape behaviour.
• Learning aids adaptation in both humans and animals, enabling better predictions based on past experiences.
• Reflexes are automatic behaviours triggered by environmental stimuli; stimuli elicit responses.
• Habituation describes the gradual weakening of reflex responses after repeated exposure to a stimulus.

Assumptions of Learning Theories

• Experience shapes behaviour significantly.
• Learning is inherently adaptive.
• Controlled experimentation can reveal the laws governing learning.

Laws of Association

• Aristotle introduced concepts explaining how thoughts are connected, leading to theories of learning and memory.
• Associationism posits that complex thoughts arise from associations of elementary perceptions.

Classical Conditioning

• Pavlov’s model attributes classical conditioning to the identification of relationships between different stimuli.
• An unconditioned reflex is a natural response that occurs without prior learning, activated by an unconditioned stimulus (UCS).
• A conditioned response (CR) results from learning, established through associations with a conditioned stimulus (CS).
• Taste aversion illustrates conditioned learning where a specific taste becomes associated with a negative experience, like nausea.

Phobias and Emotional Responses

• Classical conditioning can explain irrational fears (phobias) through the association of neutral stimuli with negative outcomes.
• Conditioned emotional responses occur when stimuli previously neutral become associated with emotional reactions.

Psychoneuroimmunology

• This field studies the interplay between psychological factors and immune responses.
• A conditioned immune response can develop when stimuli are correlated with immune system activity.

Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination

• Stimulus generalization occurs when responses occur to similar stimuli, with maladaptive generalization leading to inappropriate reactions.
• Stimulus discrimination refers to the ability to distinguish between different stimuli based on specific learned associations.

Extinction and Recovery in Conditioning

• Extinction involves the weakening of CR when CS is presented without UCS.
• Spontaneous recovery may occur, where a previously extinguished response re-emerges briefly.

Factors Influencing Classical Conditioning

• The interstimulus interval affects conditioning; a brief temporal gap between CS and UCS leads to stronger associations.
• Different conditioning methods (forward, simultaneous, backward) influence the effectiveness of learning.

Preparedness and Prediction

• Certain associations are more readily learned due to evolutionary adaptations.
• Law of prediction establishes that the formation of CS-UCS associations is contingent upon the CS predicting the UCS's occurrence.

Learning Mechanisms at the Synaptic Level

• Long-term potentiation (LTP) indicates strengthened neuron connections following consistent stimulation, suggesting learning changes neural pathways.
• Contextual learning emphasizes the role of environmental context in association learning.

Operant Conditioning

• Operant conditioning is based on behaviour modification through environmental consequences.
• The law of effect posits that behaviour is directed by its consequences, where operants produce specific environmental responses.

Reinforcement Types

• Positive reinforcement includes presenting a stimulus to increase the likelihood of behaviour recurrence.
• Negative reinforcement involves the removal of an aversive stimulus to promote behaviour.
• Punishment (positive and negative) decreases the likelihood of behaviour but has limitations such as fear response or misidentification of punished behaviours.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous reinforcement promotes quick acquisition of behaviours, while partial reinforcement is more effective for long-term retention.
• Ratio and interval schedules determine the conditions under which reinforcement occurs, influencing response rates.

Discriminative Stimuli and Contextual Factors

• Discriminative stimuli connect behaviours to consequences, impacting response consistency.
• Behavioural economics evaluates the cost and benefit analysis involved in reinforcing behaviours in varied contexts.

Cognitive-Social Learning Theory

• Cognitive-social theory combines conditioning concepts with emphasis on cognition and social learning aspects.
• Latent learning demonstrates knowledge acquisition without immediate reinforcement, revealing cognitive map utilization in behaviour.
• Expectancies influence behaviour likelihood; internal locus of control suggests belief in personal impact on outcomes, while external locus suggests reliance on outside forces.
• Learned helplessness describes expectancy of powerlessness, hindering motivation and learning.### Explanatory Style
• Explanatory style affects perceptions of negative events and influences susceptibility to depression.
• Pessimistic explanatory style attributes blame for bad events to oneself, considering these causes stable and global in nature.

Social Learning and Mechanisms

• Social learning occurs through observational learning and direct instruction.
• Observational learning involves acquiring behavior by watching others, while modelling refers to reproducing observed behaviors.

Characteristics of Effective Models

• Model's perceived status and similarity to the observer can impact learning effectiveness.
• Liking the model enhances engagement and retention in the learning process.

Vicarious Conditioning

• Individuals learn consequences of actions by observing others' experiences without direct engagement.
• Direct tutelage involves verbal explanations to facilitate understanding of concepts.

Classical Conditioning

• Classical conditioning involves linking a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR).
• Concepts include:
  • Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): initiates an automatic response.
  • Conditioned stimulus (CS): acquires the ability to evoke a CR through association.
  • Stimulus generalization: responding similarly to stimuli resembling the CS.
  • Stimulus discrimination: responding only to specific stimuli.

Extinction and Influences

• Extinction in classical conditioning occurs when the CS is presented without the UCS, weakening the CR over time.
• Factors affecting conditioning include the interstimulus interval and individual learning history.

Operant Conditioning

• Operant conditioning, formulated by Skinner, involves learning behaviors through consequences.
• A behavior's likelihood to recur is influenced by reinforcement (increases probability) or punishment (decreases probability).
• Key reinforcement types:
  • Positive reinforcement: adding a rewarding stimulus post-behavior.
  • Negative reinforcement: removing an aversive stimulus enhances behavior recurrence.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous reinforcement schedules provide the same consequence after every response.
• Partial reinforcement schedules offer reinforcement intermittently, including:
  • Fixed-ratio (FR): reinforcement after a set number of responses.
  • Variable-ratio (VR): unpredictable number of responses for reinforcement.
  • Fixed-interval (FI) and variable-interval (VI): reinforcement based on specific or variable time intervals.

Cognitive-Social Theory

• Emphasizes cognitive aspects and social learning; incorporates expectations in behavioral likelihood.
• Learning can manifest differently based on cognitive mapping and individual context.

Learned Helplessness and Locus of Control

• Learned helplessness leads to passivity due to perceived lack of control over adverse events.
• Locus of control categorizes individuals as either internal (believing they control outcomes) or external (attributing outcomes to outside forces).

Key Concepts in Learning Theory

• Different learning phenomena observed include:
  • Insight: ability to understand the connection between problems and solutions.
  • Habituation: reduced response strength due to repeated stimulus exposure.
  • Latent learning: knowledge acquired but not immediately expressed.

Other Relevant Terms

• Antisocial personality disorder is characterized by irresponsible and disruptive behavior.
• Biofeedback allows monitoring and voluntary control over autonomic functions.
• Superstitious behavior arises from erroneous associations between actions and outcomes.

This quiz covers key concepts from Chapter 9.1 of psychology, focusing on learning theories and their importance within the behaviorist perspective. It explores concepts such as adaptation, prediction, reflexes, and stimuli that play a role in learning processes.