Psychology Chapter 6: Memory Processes
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Questions and Answers

What does the encoding specificity principle suggest regarding memory retrieval?

  • Memory retrieval is improved when the encoding and retrieval conditions are similar (correct)
  • Memory retrieval is solely based on the emotional state during encoding
  • Memory retrieval is enhanced by frequent rehearsal of information
  • Memory retrieval is most effective under extreme stress

Flashbulb memories are primarily associated with which type of encoding?

  • Emotional significance (correct)
  • Visual processing
  • Acoustic processing
  • Repetitive rehearsal

In Craig and Tulving's depth of processing experiment, which focus resulted in better memory retention?

  • Focusing on the length of words
  • Focusing on the syllables of words
  • Focusing on the frequency of word usage
  • Focusing on the meaning of words (correct)

What is most likely to lead to encoding failure?

<p>Lack of attention directed at the information (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of encoding is primarily involved in forming procedural memories?

<p>Implicit encoding (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the interference where old memories prevent new memories from being formed?

<p>Proactive interference (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which brain structure is crucial for forming new memories that is affected in anterograde amnesia?

<p>Hippocampus (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which memory strategy is indicated by grouping similar items to enhance encoding?

<p>Chunking (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Divided attention can hinder the encoding process primarily because:

<p>It reduces the likelihood of conscious rehearsal (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is most commonly associated with which type of words?

<p>Unusual or infrequently used words (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is NOT typically a cause of amnesia?

<p>Chronic rehearsal (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Elaborative encoding primarily involves which part of the brain?

<p>Prefrontal cortex (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Interference is likely to occur when two sets of information are:

<p>Similar in nature (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Using contextual or semantic cues can assist in overcoming which type of memory issue?

<p>Retrieval failure (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of amnesia results in losing the ability to recall personal memories that were formed before an injury?

<p>Retrograde amnesia (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which form of amnesia is characterized by the loss of memories prior to a traumatic event?

<p>Retrograde amnesia (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of memory is primarily affected by anterograde amnesia?

<p>Memory encoding (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Decay theory struggles to explain which scenario about memory?

<p>Differing rates of memory decay among individuals (C), Recovery of forgotten memories through cues (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the interference theory explain the process of forgetting?

<p>Caused by the overlap of similar memories interfering with one another (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What limitation is presented by decay theory regarding forgetting?

<p>It fails to recognize the potential of recovery through cues (B), It neglects differences in forgetting rates across materials (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which theory suggests a disruption in memory due to competition from similar information?

<p>Interference theory (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of amnesia can occur as a result of trauma or psychological stress?

<p>Dissociative amnesia (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to decay theory, forgetting primarily happens due to what reason?

<p>Weakening of memory traces over time (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a failure to remember due to lack of attention during the information encoding process?

<p>Encoding failure (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is primarily exemplified by repeated exposure to fabricated details about an event?

<p>False memory phenomenon (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which researcher is most associated with the study of false memories?

<p>Elizabeth Loftus (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of reconstructive memory, how can 'remembering' be best described?

<p>The integration of past events using both new and old information (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'source monitoring' refer to?

<p>The inability to distinguish between the original source of information and new information. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which experiment illustrated the effects of misleading post-event information on memory recall?

<p>The car accident experiment by Loftus and Palmer (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes source amnesia?

<p>A person recalling an event but being unable to remember where they learned the details. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key issue that can affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimony?

<p>Witnesses can be influenced by question phrasing (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can schemas affect reconstructive memory?

<p>Schemas can sometimes distort memories by filling in gaps with inaccurate information. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Source monitoring errors primarily lead to what type of confusion?

<p>Confusing the origin of a memory (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What exemplifies the misinformation effect in eyewitness testimony?

<p>A witness changes their account of the event after hearing a misleading question. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In memory studies, what is meant by 'false memories'?

<p>Memories of events that did not actually occur, but are believed to be true. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor most commonly contributes to source amnesia?

<p>Confusion between internal thoughts and external events (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which cognitive phenomenon involves reconstructing past events with integrated information?

<p>Reconstructive memory (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about schemas is inaccurate?

<p>Schemas are always reliable for accurate memory reconstruction. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is most likely to lead to the creation of false memories?

<p>Exposure to misleading information after the event. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does reconstructive memory suggest about how memories are formed?

<p>Memories can be changed and distorted over time. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Alzheimer's disease, which type of memory loss occurs first?

<p>Episodic and short-term memories (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is most prominently linked to memory issues in Alzheimer's disease?

<p>Acetylcholine (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines dementia?

<p>Progressive memory loss and other cognitive impairments that interfere with daily life (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common symptom shared by Alzheimer's disease and dementia?

<p>Difficulty in performing daily tasks and remembering new information (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Alzheimer's disease, which brain area primarily deteriorates?

<p>The hippocampus and related structures involved in memory formation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an early warning sign of Alzheimer's disease?

<p>Forgetting well-learned facts and becoming easily confused (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition is notably associated with cognitive decline and memory loss in elderly individuals?

<p>Alzheimer's disease (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which cognitive function is often impacted first in Alzheimer's patients?

<p>Memory for new information (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Encoding Specificity Principle

The concept that memory retrieval is enhanced when the conditions at encoding (learning) match the conditions at retrieval (remembering).

Flashbulb Memories

Vivid and detailed memories of highly emotional or significant events, often perceived as very accurate, but they can be inaccurate.

Depth of Processing

The idea that deeper levels of processing (meaningful and elaborative) lead to better memory retention. Deeper processing involves associating information with existing knowledge or creating new connections.

Encoding Failure

A failure to encode information into memory due to lack of attention, divided attention, or distraction. This can happen when we fail to notice important information or don't pay enough attention during the encoding process.

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Implicit Encoding

A type of encoding primarily used for forming procedural memories (motor skills, habits). It's an unconscious learning process that occurs without deliberate effort.

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Chunking

A memory strategy that involves organizing information into smaller and meaningful units (chunks) to enhance encoding and storage. This makes it easier to remember larger amounts of information.

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Divided Attention

Attention that is divided between multiple tasks or stimuli, which can hinder encoding and make it difficult to retain information.

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Elaborative Encoding

A form of encoding that involves processing information based on its meaning and relating it to existing knowledge, making it more memorable. This type of encoding is associated with activation of the prefrontal cortex.

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Retrograde Amnesia

A person with this condition cannot recall events, memories, or experiences that happened before the injury or trauma that caused the amnesia.

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Anterograde Amnesia

This type of amnesia affects the ability to form new memories after the injury or trauma. Individuals can still recall memories from before the event but struggle to create new ones.

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Interference Theory

This theory proposes that forgetting occurs when new information interferes with the retrieval of older information or vice versa. Think of it like trying to find a specific book in a crowded bookshelf.

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Decay Theory

This theory suggests that forgetting occurs due to the gradual fading of memory traces over time. It's like a path in the forest that becomes overgrown and eventually disappears.

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Dissociative Amnesia

This type of amnesia is caused by psychological stressors or trauma. It involves a loss of memory for specific periods of time, often related to traumatic events.

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Retrograde Amnesia

The inability to remember information that was learned or experienced before a specific event, often caused by an injury or trauma.

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Retrieval Failure

This theory suggests that forgetting is due to a lack of available retrieval cues. Imagine searching for a lost item in your house - without the right clues, you might not find it.

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Proactive Interference

Old memories interfere with forming new memories. Imagine you're trying to learn a new song (new memory) but an old one (old memory) keeps playing in your head, making it harder to learn the new one.

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Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

When a memory is almost within reach, but you can't quite access it. It often happens with uncommon words. Think about that moment when you know the word but can't quite recall it.

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Interference

Interference occurs when similar information muddles our memories. Imagine trying to remember two similar phone numbers, it's hard because they compete with each other.

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Proactive Interference

When older memories block the recall of newer material. Think of memorizing a new address, but the old one keeps popping up, making it harder to recall the new one.

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Source Monitoring

The process of determining the origin of a memory, involving distinguishing between real and imagined information.

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Source Amnesia

An inability to recall the source of a learned memory, leading to confusion about where the information came from.

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Schemas

Mental frameworks that organize our knowledge and experiences, influencing how we perceive and remember events.

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Schema-Based Distortion

A type of memory distortion where existing schemas can fill in gaps or alter details in a memory, resulting in inaccuracies.

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Misinformation Effect

The phenomenon where memories become contaminated by misleading information, potentially altering eyewitness accounts.

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False Memories

Memories of events that did not actually occur, often due to suggestions or repeated suggestions, which can be quite vivid.

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Reconstructive Memory

The act of reconstructing past experiences based on our current beliefs, feelings, and knowledge.

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Flashbulb Memory

A type of reconstructive memory that is often associated with vivid, detailed memories of emotionally significant events, but can still be inaccurate.

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False Memory Phenomenon

Repeatedly introducing false information about an event can lead to the creation of a false memory.

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Who is Elizabeth Loftus?

Elizabeth Loftus is a psychologist known for her research on the malleability of memory, particularly focusing on how post-event information can influence memory recall.

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Loftus and Palmer's Car Accident Experiment

The car accident experiment by Loftus and Palmer demonstrated that misleading information provided after an event can significantly affect how people remember the event.

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Reliability of Eyewitness Testimony

Eyewitness testimony, while often offered as evidence, can be unreliable due to factors like stress, the way questions are asked, and other environmental influences.

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Source Monitoring Errors

Source monitoring errors occur when we mistakenly attribute a memory to the wrong source, leading to confusion about where or how a memory was acquired.

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Misleading Information and Memory

Misleading post-event information can influence memory recall by creating false details or altering existing memories, demonstrating the malleability of memory.

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Alzheimer's Disease

A progressive brain disorder that causes memory loss, cognitive decline, and impaired daily functioning.

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Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in memory and learning. Its decline is associated with Alzheimer's disease.

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Dementia

The gradual loss of cognitive abilities, including memory, thinking, and reasoning, that interferes with daily life.

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Episodic Memory

A type of memory that involves remembering personal experiences and events, such as a birthday party or a vacation. It's usually the first to be affected in Alzheimer's.

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Semantic Memory

The ability to recall information that is not specifically tied to a particular time or place. It's often relatively preserved in Alzheimer's.

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Hippocampus

The part of the brain primarily affected in Alzheimer's disease, responsible for forming new memories and spatial navigation.

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Forgetting Familiar Information

The early sign of Alzheimer's, characterized by forgetting well-learned facts and becoming easily confused. The brain is struggling to retrieve information.

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Difficulty with Daily Tasks

A common symptom of Alzheimer's, where individuals find it difficult to perform daily tasks and remember newly learned information.

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Study Notes

  • Memory is a complex cognitive process involving encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Types of Memory

  • Sensory memory: A brief storage of sensory input (iconic - visual, echoic - auditory) with a large capacity but very short duration.

  • Short-term memory (STM): Limited capacity (7 ± 2 chunks) and short duration memory store. Rehearsal and chunking enhance STM capacity.

  • Long-term memory (LTM): A relatively permanent and unlimited capacity memory store.

    • Explicit (declarative) memory:
      • Episodic memory: Personal experiences and events.
      • Semantic memory: General knowledge and facts.
    • Implicit (non-declarative) memory: Procedural memory (skills and habits), priming, classical conditioning.

Processes of Memory

  • Encoding: Transforming sensory information into a neural code that can be stored in memory (visual, acoustic, semantic). Mnemonic devices are used to aid encoding.

  • Storage: Maintaining encoded information in memory over time. Memory consolidation involves moving information from STM to LTM.

    • Role of brain regions (hippocampus, amygdala).

  • Retrieval: Recalling stored information.

    • Free recall, cued recall, recognition.
    • Context-dependent and state-dependent retrieval.
    • Retrieval cues aid retrieval.

Models of Memory

  • Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (Multi-Store Model): Three-stage model of memory (sensory, short-term, long-term).

  • Baddeley's Working Memory Model: A more complex model of STM including components like the central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer.

  • Levels of Processing Model: Deeper processing leads to better memory retention.

  • Tulving's Model of Memory Systems: Classifies LTM into explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative) memory.

Forgetting and Memory Failures

  • Theories of forgetting:

    • Decay theory: Memories fade over time if not used or rehearsed.

    • Interference theory: New information disrupts the retrieval of old information (retroactive) or old information disrupts the retrieval of new information (proactive).

    • Retrieval failure: Information is stored but cannot be retrieved due to a lack of appropriate cues.

  • Amnesia: Loss of memory, either retrograde (loss of past memories) or anterograde (inability to form new memories). Caused by brain injury or trauma.

  • Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: A temporary inability to retrieve information that is stored in memory.

Memory and the Brain

  • Role of hippocampus, amygdala, prefrontal cortex, and cerebellum in memory processes.

  • Neurotransmitters involved: acetylcholine, glutamate, and others.

Memory Development

  • Memory development changes across the lifespan, with changes in infancy and childhood, and age-related changes.

  • Neuroplasticity influences memory development.

False Memories and Reconstruction

  • Misinformation effect: Incorporating misleading information into memories.

  • Eyewitness testimony: Susceptibility of eyewitness accounts to inaccuracy.

  • Source monitoring errors: Confusing the origins of a memory.

Applied Memory

  • Memory techniques and strategies
  • Role of memory in learning and education
  • Memory enhancement/training
  • Memory in artificial intelligence.

Special Topics

  • Flashbulb memories: Detailed and vivid memories of emotionally significant events.

  • Autobiographical memory: Memory of personal experiences.

  • Prospective memory: Remembering to perform actions in the future.

  • Memory disorders (Alzheimer's, dementia): Brain diseases that damage/weaken memory processes.

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Test your knowledge on memory processes with this quiz covering the encoding specificity principle, flashbulb memories, depth of processing, and more. Explore how different types of encoding affect memory retrieval and retention. Perfect for students studying psychology!

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