Psychology Chapter 6: Learning and Memory

Questions and Answers

What is conceptually driven processing?

Processing driven by knowledge, expectations, and goals.

What type of processing is driven by knowledge, expectations, and goals?

Data driven processing

Conceptually driven processing (correct)

Which type of processing has more influence in explicit memory and no influence in implicit memory?

Conceptually driven processing (correct)

Data driven processing

Seeing a cloud in the sky as a cloud is an example of processing, but seeing shapes in the clouds is an example of processing.

conceptually driven, data driven Signup and view all the answers

Explain the Nissen and Bullemer study and its relation to implicit memory.

Students saw a row of four lights, with a button below each one. The task was to press the button below a light after it lit up. The lights were either random or in a consistent pattern, revealing implicit learning of repetitive sequences. Signup and view all the answers

Which group performed faster in the Nissen and Bullemer study?

The group with a consistent light pattern. Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory was studied in Nissen and Bullemer's research?

Unconscious implicit memory. Signup and view all the answers

What is the type of sequence learning in which people are exposed to sequences that conform to or do not conform to a pre-specified generation plan?

Artificial grammar. Signup and view all the answers

Give an example of artificial grammars.

People shown sequences of grammatical and ungrammatical strings have to find patterns to discern what it is. Signup and view all the answers

Nondeclarative memories are often spared in amnesia.

True Signup and view all the answers

Match the following using the classical Pavlovian example of conditioning:

US = Meat UR = Salivation NS = Bell CS = Bell CR = Salivation Signup and view all the answers

During learning, the _____ is presented prior to the in a reliable and consistent way.

NS, US Signup and view all the answers

A person may have a negative public speaking experience; the anxiety experienced prior to public speaking is ____________ conditioned.

Classical Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following paradigms elicits learning?

NS->US->UR Signup and view all the answers

The following expresses which type of association in classical conditioning? The CS and the US directly cause the CR and the UR to occur.

Stimulus response associations Signup and view all the answers

What type of association in classical conditioning relates to a stimulus reminding you of another stimulus?

Stimulus stimulus associations Signup and view all the answers

Which type of association in classical conditioning occurs more frequently?

Stimulus stimulus associations Signup and view all the answers

Learning occurs when an NS and a US occur near each other in time. Timing is important, but what is the critical factor?

Contingency learning Signup and view all the answers

Sensitivity to underlying causal structure involves what type of learning?

Contingency learning Signup and view all the answers

What is important in classical conditioning is not but ____.

contiguity, contingency Signup and view all the answers

Explain the initial learning concept in classical conditioning.

The idea that association takes time to develop due to the randomness of events in the world. Signup and view all the answers

In terms of classical conditioning, _____ occurs when the association weakens in the absence of any US.

Extinction Signup and view all the answers

Give an example of extinction in classical conditioning.

If a bell rings but no food is offered, the dog will stop salivating when it hears the bell. Signup and view all the answers

Classical conditioning follows a learning curve.

True Signup and view all the answers

What occurs when the CS is presented again after a long delay?

Spontaneous recovery. Signup and view all the answers

Savings is the principle that re-learning something again after it has been ______ takes less time.

extinct. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the mere exposure effect.

People prefer what they're familiar with or have been exposed to because we prefer things we know will not hurt us. Signup and view all the answers

The mere exposure effect will work as long as the experience __________.

was not negative. Signup and view all the answers

The mere exposure effect is not seen if conscious memory is not involved.

False Signup and view all the answers

The mere exposure effect grows stronger with more exposures and the same contexts.

False Signup and view all the answers

When does the mere exposure effect seem to decline?

After a large number of exposures, such as overplayed songs on the radio. Signup and view all the answers

Explain James Cutting's example of the mere exposure effect in popular culture.

He found that the French Impressionists that were viewed as the most important were related to exposure. Signup and view all the answers

Preference judgments seen in the mere exposure effect are related to which area of the brain?

Right lateral frontal lobe Signup and view all the answers

Explain Thorndike's law of effect.

The consequences of a response determine whether it is strengthened or weakened. Positive consequences increase the likelihood of repeating the behavior while negative or neutral consequences lead to weakening. Signup and view all the answers

Give a common example of Thorndike's law of effect.

Superstition. Signup and view all the answers

Thorndike's law of effect is an example of what type of conditioning?

Both C and B Signup and view all the answers

Causal involves _____________ determination, why?

unconscious. Signup and view all the answers

While some causal learning is ___________, other learning may be more inferential.

associative. Signup and view all the answers

What can be said about causal learning?

At this point it is unclear the extent to which the memory principles that underlie conditioning are also driving causal learning. Signup and view all the answers

Memory for how to do things is known as?

Procedural memory. Signup and view all the answers

Procedural memory mainly involves what specific type of memory?

Motor memory Signup and view all the answers

Skill acquisition, such as learning a language, involves what type of memory?

Procedural memory. Signup and view all the answers

While motor memory is unconscious, it can be disrupted when?

You consciously begin to think about the task, e.g., choking under pressure. Signup and view all the answers

What best sums up the phenomenon of choking under pressure?

You choke because you bring working memory into a procedural task. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the choking under pressure task with golf pros and novices; what happened in the first trial versus the second trial?

In the first trial, pros outperformed novices. In the second trial, when asked to think about everything they're doing, they choked under pressure while novices improved. Signup and view all the answers

What is negative transfer?

Prior procedural knowledge interferes with the ability to learn a new association. Signup and view all the answers

The amount of negative transfer depends on?

Degree of overlap of task performed. Signup and view all the answers

Molly is used to driving stick shift, so when she got into an automatic car she began to behave as if she were driving stick due to what phenomenon?

Negative transfer. Signup and view all the answers

A fundamental form of nondeclarative memory is conditioning.

True Signup and view all the answers

Knowledge of how to do things, such as throwing a ball, is part of _______ memory.

Non-declarative Signup and view all the answers

List the stages of skill acquisition.

Cognitive, Associative, Autonomous. Signup and view all the answers

Match the following stages of stage theory of skill acquisition with their descriptions.

Cognitive = Conscious and deliberate actions Associative = Direct access of memories, still conscious Autonomous = Unconscious and automatic Signup and view all the answers

Jenna is a beginner at tennis; when she goes to hit the ball she thinks deliberately about what she's doing; she's probably in which stage of skill acquisition?

Cognitive Signup and view all the answers

Megan is learning tennis; when she swings her racket, the movement is associated with a chunk of information; she is probably in which stage of skill acquisition?

Associative Signup and view all the answers

Georgia is a volleyball player; her movement when she spikes the ball requires no conscious thinking; she is probably in which stage of skill acquisition?

Autonomous Signup and view all the answers

To become an expert at something requires about _______ hours.

<ol start="10000"> <li></li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

Joe is learning to read; he just became able to put letters together to make an entire word; he is probably in which stage of skill acquisition?

Associative Signup and view all the answers

The idea that there are three stages does not mean a person is necessarily in one particular stage.

True Signup and view all the answers

List and describe the three systems of Chien & Schneider's triarchic theory of skill acquisition.

Metacognitive - aware of what you're doing; Cognitive control - shift from one execution to the next; Representation - automatic execution. Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between the stage theory of skill acquisition and Chien & Schneider's triarchic theory?

In the triarchic theory, each system interacts in combination with the others but one is more dominant; stage theory goes from one stage to the next. Signup and view all the answers

The metacognitive stage of Chien and Schneider's triarchic theory involves which area(s) of the brain?

Anterior prefrontal cortex Signup and view all the answers

The cognitive control system of Chien and Schneider's triarchic theory involves all of the following areas of the brain except?

Anterior prefrontal cortex Signup and view all the answers

The representational system of Chien and Schneider's triarchic theory involves which areas of the brain?

It depends. Signup and view all the answers

Monitoring pressure involves conflict between what types of processes?

Controlled and automatic Signup and view all the answers

What may help relieve performance-based anxiety?

Expressing thoughts about what you are worried about, such as writing it down in a journal. Signup and view all the answers

Choking under pressure involves?

Poorer performance on a skilled task. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the difference between monitoring pressure and outcome pressure.

Monitoring refers to pressure related to conflict between automatic and controlled processes; outcome pressure involves anxiety due to fear about a particular outcome, such as test-taking. Signup and view all the answers

Outcome pressure: test-taking as monitoring pressure is to?

Doing a skill while being observed. Signup and view all the answers

List three things that make someone an expert.

Practice, Practicing things that you're bad at, Genetic predisposition. Signup and view all the answers

Implicit memory is any memory that does not require ____________.

consciousness. Signup and view all the answers

Déjà vu is an example of _______ memory.

Implicit Signup and view all the answers

Adopting the 'Notre Dame accent' is an example of what type of memory?

Implicit Signup and view all the answers

Ebbinghaus's description of savings is an example of what type of memory?

Implicit Signup and view all the answers

Procedural memory can be implicit.

True Signup and view all the answers

Incidental learning is dependent on _________ memory.

Implicit. Signup and view all the answers

We can directly test for implicit memory.

False Signup and view all the answers

How can we test indirectly for implicit memory? Give an example.

Through tests that do not explicitly require people to remember, such as priming or semantic priming. Signup and view all the answers

By activating one area of memory, we can activate others; for example, if I think of 'doctor,' I may think of 'nurse'. This is called?

Semantic priming. Signup and view all the answers

Kolers' inverted text test what type of memory?

Implicit Signup and view all the answers

Priming is not limited to word lists; it may be seen in other ways such as exposure to particular scents.

True Signup and view all the answers

Implicit memory task in which participants must use a given string of letters and indicate whether or not it is a word?

Lexical decision Signup and view all the answers

What has been found as a result of verbal tests for implicit memory?

People respond faster to related words or something they've encountered before. Signup and view all the answers

Declarative memory is more robust and less likely to be forgotten.

False Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is not an example of a verbal test for implicit memory?

Perceptual identification Signup and view all the answers

Explicit memory response probability is more affected by retention interval.

True Signup and view all the answers

It is difficult to observe incidental learning as it is happening.

True Signup and view all the answers

People who remember more show a greater alpha band change, whereas people who remember less show more desynchronization in the _ alpha band.

Lower, Upper Signup and view all the answers

The mere exposure effect can be considered a priming effect.

True Signup and view all the answers

Priming of an item that was encountered recently; for example, if you saw the word 'assassin' earlier, you recognize it faster and more accurately when you see it again later.

Repetition priming Signup and view all the answers

Priming can involve an increase in neural activity.

False Signup and view all the answers

Repetition priming is associated with decreased activity in the _, whereas semantic priming is associated with decreased activity in the _______.

Visual cortex, Frontal lobes Signup and view all the answers

Why does priming entail decreased neural activity?

You don't have to do as much work because the memory engrams are already more readily available. Signup and view all the answers

Even with nonverbal tasks, perceptual identification is easier if one has been pre-exposed.

True Signup and view all the answers

Explain the word stem task / how it relates to implicit memory.

Participants are given a stem of a word to complete with whatever comes to mind, often using words they've recently encountered. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the word fragment task / how it relates to implicit memory.

Participants are given words with missing letters, such as A _ _ A _ _ IN, and must complete them, typically using words they have encountered before. Signup and view all the answers

Often lyrics are unclear, and you have to guess what a person is singing. However, if you read the lyrics, you can easily follow them the next time you hear the song. This is an example of ____________.

Perceptual identification. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the possible versus impossible object test and its relation to priming.

Participants first view a set of objects and then make possible-impossible decisions. The degree to which they respond faster to familiar objects is an indicator of priming. Signup and view all the answers

Implicit memory seems to be driven by perceptual characteristics.

True Signup and view all the answers

Processing driven by the environment is called?

Data-driven processing Signup and view all the answers

Which has more influence in implicit memory?

Data-driven processing Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Learning and Memory Overview

Nondeclarative memories typically remain intact in individuals with amnesia.
Classical conditioning categorizes items:
- Unconditioned Stimulus (US) - Meat
- Unconditioned Response (UR) - Salivation
- Neutral Stimulus (NS) - Bell (becomes Conditioned Stimulus - CS)
- Conditioned Response (CR) - Salivation in response to bell
The Neutral Stimulus precedes the Unconditioned Stimulus to facilitate learning.

Fear Conditioning and Learning Paradigms

Anxiety from negative experiences can lead to classical conditioning of phobias.
Learning occurs through the sequence: NS -> US -> UR.
Stimulus-response associations are direct, while stimulus-stimulus associations are based on memory trace.

Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

Extinction weakens the association without the US.
Spontaneous recovery occurs when a previously extinguished response reemerges after a delay.

Mere Exposure Effect

Familiarity increases preference; this effect is rooted in implicit memory.
Experience needs to be positive for mere exposure to yield favorable outcomes.
The effect can still occur without conscious awareness of prior exposure.
Familiarity can decline after excessive exposure, such as overplayed songs.

Thorndike's Law of Effect

Responses are reinforced or weakened based on their consequences.
Common example: superstitions develop through reinforcement.
Can be classified as both operant and instrumental conditioning.

Skill Acquisition and Procedural Memory

Skill acquisition progresses through three stages: cognitive, associative, and autonomous.
Mastery requires approximately 10,000 hours of practice.
Overthinking during performance can disrupt motor memory and lead to "choking."

Negative Transfer

Negative transfer occurs when prior knowledge interferes with learning new tasks.
The extent of negative transfer is influenced by task similarity.

Implicit Memory and Testing

Implicit memory does not require conscious awareness.
Methods to assess implicit memory include priming, lexical decision tasks, and fragment completion.

Priming and Neural Activity

Priming involves faster processing for previously encountered items, leading to decreased neural activity as memories become more accessible.
Two types of priming: repetition (recently seen) and semantic (related concepts).

Processing Types

Data-driven processing relies on observable stimuli; conceptually driven processing relies on expectations and previous knowledge.
Implicit memory is more influenced by data-driven processing.

Nissen and Bullemer Study

Studied sequence learning where repetitive patterns enhanced performance due to implicit memory formation.
Consistent patterns led to faster reaction times compared to random sequences.

Summary of Implicit versus Explicit Memory

Implicit memory is shaped by environmental interactions and is tested indirectly, while explicit memory relies heavily on conscious recall and is more vulnerable to forgetting.

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Description

Test your knowledge on learning and memory concepts from Chapter 6. This quiz covers key terms, classical conditioning, and the relationship between different types of memories. Perfect for reinforcing your understanding of essential psychological principles.

Psychology Chapter 6: Learning and Memory

Questions and Answers

What is conceptually driven processing?

What type of processing is driven by knowledge, expectations, and goals?

Which type of processing has more influence in explicit memory and no influence in implicit memory?

Seeing a cloud in the sky as a cloud is an example of ______________ processing, but seeing shapes in the clouds is an example of ______________ processing.

Explain the Nissen and Bullemer study and its relation to implicit memory.

Which group performed faster in the Nissen and Bullemer study?

What type of memory was studied in Nissen and Bullemer's research?

What is the type of sequence learning in which people are exposed to sequences that conform to or do not conform to a pre-specified generation plan?

Give an example of artificial grammars.

Nondeclarative memories are often spared in amnesia.

Match the following using the classical Pavlovian example of conditioning:

During learning, the _________ is presented prior to the ____ in a reliable and consistent way.

A person may have a negative public speaking experience; the anxiety experienced prior to public speaking is ____________ conditioned.

Which of the following paradigms elicits learning?

The following expresses which type of association in classical conditioning? The CS and the US directly cause the CR and the UR to occur.

What type of association in classical conditioning relates to a stimulus reminding you of another stimulus?

Which type of association in classical conditioning occurs more frequently?

Learning occurs when an NS and a US occur near each other in time. Timing is important, but what is the critical factor?

Sensitivity to underlying causal structure involves what type of learning?

What is important in classical conditioning is not ________ but ____________.

Explain the initial learning concept in classical conditioning.

In terms of classical conditioning, _____ occurs when the association weakens in the absence of any US.

Give an example of extinction in classical conditioning.

Classical conditioning follows a learning curve.

What occurs when the CS is presented again after a long delay?

Savings is the principle that re-learning something again after it has been ______ takes less time.

Explain the mere exposure effect.

The mere exposure effect will work as long as the experience __________.

The mere exposure effect is not seen if conscious memory is not involved.

The mere exposure effect grows stronger with more exposures and the same contexts.

When does the mere exposure effect seem to decline?

Explain James Cutting's example of the mere exposure effect in popular culture.

Preference judgments seen in the mere exposure effect are related to which area of the brain?

Explain Thorndike's law of effect.

Give a common example of Thorndike's law of effect.

Thorndike's law of effect is an example of what type of conditioning?

Causal involves _____________ determination, why?

While some causal learning is ___________, other learning may be more inferential.

What can be said about causal learning?

Memory for how to do things is known as?

Procedural memory mainly involves what specific type of memory?

Skill acquisition, such as learning a language, involves what type of memory?

While motor memory is unconscious, it can be disrupted when?

What best sums up the phenomenon of choking under pressure?

Explain the choking under pressure task with golf pros and novices; what happened in the first trial versus the second trial?

What is negative transfer?

The amount of negative transfer depends on?

Molly is used to driving stick shift, so when she got into an automatic car she began to behave as if she were driving stick due to what phenomenon?

A fundamental form of nondeclarative memory is conditioning.

Knowledge of how to do things, such as throwing a ball, is part of _______ memory.

List the stages of skill acquisition.

Match the following stages of stage theory of skill acquisition with their descriptions.

Jenna is a beginner at tennis; when she goes to hit the ball she thinks deliberately about what she's doing; she's probably in which stage of skill acquisition?

Megan is learning tennis; when she swings her racket, the movement is associated with a chunk of information; she is probably in which stage of skill acquisition?

Georgia is a volleyball player; her movement when she spikes the ball requires no conscious thinking; she is probably in which stage of skill acquisition?

To become an expert at something requires about _______ hours.

Joe is learning to read; he just became able to put letters together to make an entire word; he is probably in which stage of skill acquisition?

The idea that there are three stages does not mean a person is necessarily in one particular stage.

List and describe the three systems of Chien & Schneider's triarchic theory of skill acquisition.

What is the difference between the stage theory of skill acquisition and Chien & Schneider's triarchic theory?

The metacognitive stage of Chien and Schneider's triarchic theory involves which area(s) of the brain?

The cognitive control system of Chien and Schneider's triarchic theory involves all of the following areas of the brain except?

The representational system of Chien and Schneider's triarchic theory involves which areas of the brain?

Monitoring pressure involves conflict between what types of processes?

What may help relieve performance-based anxiety?

Choking under pressure involves?

Describe the difference between monitoring pressure and outcome pressure.

Outcome pressure: test-taking as monitoring pressure is to?

List three things that make someone an expert.

Implicit memory is any memory that does not require ____________.

Déjà vu is an example of _______ memory.

Adopting the 'Notre Dame accent' is an example of what type of memory?

Ebbinghaus's description of savings is an example of what type of memory?

Procedural memory can be implicit.

Incidental learning is dependent on _________ memory.

We can directly test for implicit memory.

How can we test indirectly for implicit memory? Give an example.

By activating one area of memory, we can activate others; for example, if I think of 'doctor,' I may think of 'nurse'. This is called?

Seeing a cloud in the sky as a cloud is an example of processing, but seeing shapes in the clouds is an example of processing.

During learning, the _____ is presented prior to the in a reliable and consistent way.

What is important in classical conditioning is not but ____.

People who remember more show a greater alpha band change, whereas people who remember less show more desynchronization in the _ alpha band.

Repetition priming is associated with decreased activity in the _, whereas semantic priming is associated with decreased activity in the _______.