Psychology Chapter 5

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Questions and Answers

How would you use shaping to teach a nonverbal child to say 'hungry'?

Begin by forming a list of responses progressively more similar to the target response, reinforce attempts at each stage until the desired word is shaped.

What are the practical recommendations for enhancing children's lives through early intervention according to Ramsey and Ramsey (1992)?

Recommendations include encouragement of exploration, mentoring in basic skills, celebration of developmental advances, guided rehearsal, protection from harmful displays, and a rich language environment.

How is self-instructional training used with children with intellectual disability?

Self-instructional training helps children who struggle with understanding directions, by teaching them to use verbal cues to process information and keep themselves on task.

What is the most common cause of inherited intellectual disability?

Fragile-X syndrome Signup and view all the answers

If Lindsay was born into a socially disadvantaged family and her sister was adopted into a more privileged home, what is likely to happen to Lindsay's IQ score compared to her sister's score?

Higher than her sister's score Signup and view all the answers

Which cause of intellectual disability is associated with an involuntary urge to eat?

Prader-Willi syndrome Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is not associated with fetal alcohol syndrome?

Non-teratogenic cause Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of self-instructional training for children with intellectual disabilities?

Teaching children to use verbal cues to process information, stay on task, and approach new tasks Signup and view all the answers

What is the connection between SES and the prevalence of intellectual disability?

SES factors play a role both in the cause of intellectual disability and the identification of persons with intellectual disability Signup and view all the answers

Explain the origins and development of the Eugenics movement in the nineteenth century, including the emphasis on labels like 'imbecile' and 'moron'

The Eugenics movement attributed intellectual and social issues to regression in human evolution. Individuals with intellectual disabilities were labeled as 'moron' or 'imbecile' to justify societal needs over individual needs Signup and view all the answers

Describe the common emotional and behavioral problems faced by individuals with intellectual disabilities

Common problems include increased depression, social withdrawal, ADHD-related symptoms, Pica, and self-injurious behaviors Signup and view all the answers

Evolutionary degeneracy theory attributed the intellectual and social problems of children with intellectual disability to:

Regression to an earlier period in the development of humankind Signup and view all the answers

During the eugenics movement, persons with intellectual disability were considered:

A threat to society Signup and view all the answers

Subaverage intellectual functioning is defined as an IQ approximately:

Two standard deviations below the mean Signup and view all the answers

To be diagnosed with intellectual disability, a person must exhibit:

Subaverage intellectual functioning and deficits in adaptive functioning Signup and view all the answers

IQ scores among individuals without intellectual disability are:

Relatively stable with the exception of infancy Signup and view all the answers

In comparison to the IQ scores of normally developing children, those of infants and children with developmental delays or intellectual disability are:

More stable Signup and view all the answers

The phenomenon that IQ scores have risen sharply since the beginning of IQ testing is known as the:

Flynn effect Signup and view all the answers

The rising of IQ scores is primarily attributed to:

Medical advances Signup and view all the answers

The most likely explanation for the discrepancy in IQ scores between blacks and whites in North America is:

Economic and social inequalities Signup and view all the answers

To be labeled with intellectual disability, below average intellectual and adaptive abilities must be evident before age:

Present before age 18 Signup and view all the answers

What are examples of conceptual adaptive behavior skills?

Money concepts Signup and view all the answers

How would you use shaping to teach a nonverbal child to say 'hungry'?

Shaping is a procedure that begins by forming a list of responses (such as 'he,' 'ha,' 'hu') that were progressively more similar to the target response (in this case, the word hungry). After an individual mastered the first sound, she would be reinforced only for attempts at the next sound on the list, and so on, until the desired sound or word was gradually shaped. Signup and view all the answers

What are the practical recommendations for enhancing children's lives through early intervention, according to Ramsey and Ramsey (1992)?

Recommendations include: encouragement of exploration; mentoring in basic skills; celebration of developmental advances; guided rehearsal and extension of new skills; protection from harmful displays of disapproval, teasing, or punishment; and a rich and responsive language environment. Signup and view all the answers

How is self-instructional training used with children with intellectual disability?

Self-instructional training is most beneficial for children who have developed some language proficiency but still have difficulty understanding and following directions. It teaches children to use verbal cues, initially taught by the therapist or teacher, to process information and keep themselves on task. Signup and view all the answers

What is the most common cause of inherited intellectual disability?

Fragile-X syndrome Signup and view all the answers

What is the most common cause of inherited intellectual disability?

Fragile-X syndrome Signup and view all the answers

In a socially disadvantaged family, if one sibling is adopted into a more privileged home, what is likely to happen to the IQ scores of the two siblings?

Higher than her sister's score Signup and view all the answers

Which cause of intellectual disability is associated with an involuntary urge to eat?

Prader-Willi syndrome Signup and view all the answers

What is Phenylketonuria (PKU) that can cause intellectual disability if untreated?

Inborn error of metabolism Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT associated with fetal alcohol syndrome?

Non-teratogenic cause Signup and view all the answers

Behavioral risk factors contributing to intellectual disability include lack of adequate stimulation.

False Signup and view all the answers

On average, what intellectual disability range do children with fetal alcohol syndrome fall into?

Mild Signup and view all the answers

What does self-instructional training teach children to do?

Self-instructional training Signup and view all the answers

Self-instructional training programs are most beneficial for which group of children?

Children with some language proficiency but difficulty following directions Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a recommendation for enhancing children’s lives through early intervention?

Emphasis on developing rote knowledge and skills through repeated drills Signup and view all the answers

Which statement regarding the adjustment of families of children with intellectual disability is false?

Family involvement is not as beneficial as residential care Signup and view all the answers

Research indicates what about the effectiveness of residential care for children with intellectual disability?

Family involvement is crucial for children's adaptation to and benefit from residential care Signup and view all the answers

What law, along with the inclusion movement, provides children with disabilities the option of being educated in regular education settings?

Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act Signup and view all the answers

What are examples of adaptive behaviors as outlined in the text?

Personal activities of daily living such as eating, dressing, mobility, toileting. Instrumental activities of daily living like preparing meals, taking medication, using the telephone, managing money, transportation, housekeeping. Signup and view all the answers

Discuss three reasons why IQ scores have been rising.

Possible reasons include rising standards of living, better schooling, improved nutrition, medical advances, stimulating environments, influence of computer games, and toys. Also, changes in parenting style towards more permissive and child-focused approach may have enhanced cognitive capacity. Moreover, unprecedented complexity in daily life has contributed to improved cognitive abilities. Signup and view all the answers

Trace the origins and development of the Eugenics movement in the nineteenth century, including causes of popularity of the movement and emphasis on labels such as 'imbecile' and 'moron'.

The Eugenics movement originated from evolutionary degeneracy theory attributing social problems to regression in evolution. It gained popularity in the early 20th century, putting societal needs over individuals' well-being. Labels like 'imbecile' and 'moron' were used to categorize individuals with intellectual disabilities. Signup and view all the answers

Discuss the different reasons why more males than females are diagnosed with intellectual disability.

Gender differences in intellectual disability diagnosis may be due to referral patterns rather than actual prevalence. Males might be more affected by X-linked genetic disorders like fragile-X syndrome. Signup and view all the answers

Discuss the connection between socioeconomic status (SES) and intellectual disability.

In mild cases, SES influences identification of intellectual disability. Prevalence increases among lower SES groups. This link affects cause, identification, and labeling of intellectual disability. Signup and view all the answers

Discuss the developmental-versus-difference controversy regarding the development of children with intellectual disability.

The controversy concerns whether children with intellectual disability follow the same developmental milestones at different rates or if they develop differently. It questions the sequential and organized development in these children. Signup and view all the answers

Explain how learned helplessness may arise in a child with intellectual disability.

Adults unknowingly condoning learned helplessness by being less encouraging after failure. Labels like 'retarded' may lead to lower expectations and less persistence in children. Signup and view all the answers

Discuss why some children with Down syndrome have problems developing secure attachments.

Some children show less emotion, which can affect attachment development. Their emotional expression may differ from what's typically expected. Signup and view all the answers

What considerations are important when diagnosing ADHD in a child with intellectual disability?

Diagnosis requires assessing behavior relative to the child's development level. Attention span variations should be considered, especially in profound intellectual disability cases. Signup and view all the answers

Describe common emotional and behavioral problems for individuals with intellectual disabilities.

Common problems include decline in sociability, increased depression, social withdrawal, ADHD symptoms, Pica, and self-injurious behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

Discuss two conditions that can arise from chromosomal abnormalities.

Down syndrome is a common result of chromosomal abnormalities. Sex chromosome variations can lead to intellectual disability syndromes like Klinefelter's (XXY) and Turner's (XO). Signup and view all the answers

Explain how intellectual disability may result from Phenylketonuria (PKU).

Untreated PKU can cause intellectual disability due to the body's inability to process phenylalanine properly, leading to brain damage and cognitive impairment. Signup and view all the answers

Evolutionary degeneracy theory attributed the intellectual and social problems of children with intellectual disability to?

Regression to an earlier period in the development of humankind Signup and view all the answers

During the eugenics movement, persons with intellectual disability were considered?

A threat to society Signup and view all the answers

Subaverage intellectual functioning is defined as an IQ approximately?

Two standard deviations below the mean Signup and view all the answers

To be diagnosed with intellectual disability, a person must exhibit?

Subaverage intellectual functioning and deficits in adaptive functioning Signup and view all the answers

IQ scores among individuals without intellectual disability are?

Relatively stable with the exception of infancy Signup and view all the answers

In comparison to the IQ scores of normally developing children, those of infants and children with developmental delays or intellectual disability are?

More stable Signup and view all the answers

The term that refers to the phenomenon of a sharp rise in IQ scores since the start of IQ testing is?

Flynn effect Signup and view all the answers

The rise in IQ scores is primarily attributed to?

Medical advances Signup and view all the answers

The most plausible explanation for the IQ score difference between blacks and whites in North America is?

Economic and social inequalities Signup and view all the answers

For a person to be diagnosed with intellectual disability, below-average intellectual and adaptive abilities must be apparent before age?

Present before age 18 Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of childhood dysthymia?

Severe mood disturbances resulting in hospitalizations Signup and view all the answers

Which cognitive bias is commonly associated with theories of depression in adolescents?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements regarding suicidal ideation in youth is most accurate?

It can occur in conjunction with co-occurring mental health disorders Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant social impact of depression in children and adolescents?

Withdrawal from family and friends Signup and view all the answers

In theories of depression, which factor is often cited as a precursor to developing cognitive distortions?

Exposure to traumatic events and childhood adversity Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the relationship between social interactions and depressive symptoms in youth?

Negative experiences within social groups can exacerbate depressive symptoms Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes Persistent Depressive Disorder (P-DD) in children?

P-DD is characterized by feelings of sadness, low self-esteem, and irritability. Signup and view all the answers

According to cognitive theories of depression, what is a key contributing factor to depressive symptoms?

Negative thinking patterns and cognitive distortions. Signup and view all the answers

What cognitive bias is most commonly associated with depressive symptoms in youth?

Pessimistic attributional style leading to self-blame. Signup and view all the answers

Which demographic is at the highest risk for contemplating suicide among those with depression?

Females aged 13 and 14 years. Signup and view all the answers

What social impact is commonly experienced by children with depressive disorders?

Social withdrawal and ineffective coping in social situations. Signup and view all the answers

What theory suggests that inadequate development of the superego may contribute to depression in children?

Psychodynamic theory. Signup and view all the answers

Which symptom is NOT considered part of Major Depressive Disorder for diagnosis?

Permanent state of happiness Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is crucial for differentiating a major depressive episode from a normal response to significant loss?

Presence of five or more symptoms Signup and view all the answers

How can cognitive biases contribute to Major Depressive Disorder in adolescents?

Amplifying negative self-appraisal Signup and view all the answers

What social impact can Major Depressive Disorder have on children and adolescents?

Withdrawal from friends and activities Signup and view all the answers

Which of these statements about suicidal ideation in youth is true?

It can be associated with recurrent thoughts of death. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a common symptom associated with Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) in children?

Significant impairment in functioning Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following features is observed more frequently in children and adolescents with Major Depressive Disorder compared to adults?

Irritable mood Signup and view all the answers

Which condition must be ruled out before diagnosing a major depressive episode?

Physiological effects of a substance Signup and view all the answers

What cognitive bias is often observed in children experiencing depression, leading them to interpret situations negatively?

Attributional style Signup and view all the answers

How does depression primarily impact a child's social relationships?

It often leads to isolation and withdrawal from peers. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of childhood depression, which of the following factors may contribute to suicidal ideation in youth?

Unaddressed mental health issues Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of a child's daily routine is most likely affected by depression?

Loss of interest in once-enjoyed activities Signup and view all the answers

What is a common developmental change in the expression of depression as children age?

Self-blame and low self-esteem often emerge in preteens. Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic is primarily associated with Persistent Depressive Disorder (P-DD) in children?

Constant feelings of sadness and self-deprecation Signup and view all the answers

What is the prevalence rate of Persistent Depressive Disorder (P-DD) among children?

Around 1% Signup and view all the answers

Which problem is commonly reported in the social functioning of children with depression?

Conflicted relationships with parents and siblings Signup and view all the answers

Which disorder is most commonly comorbid with Persistent Depressive Disorder (P-DD)?

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) Signup and view all the answers

At what common age does Persistent Depressive Disorder (P-DD) typically onset in children?

Early adolescence, around 11-12 years Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant cognitive bias that children with depression may exhibit?

Negative attributional styles and hopelessness Signup and view all the answers

What is the typical prevalence range of bipolar disorder among youths aged 7-21 years old?

0.5 to 2.5% Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT considered a classic symptom of mania in children?

Heightened anxiety Signup and view all the answers

What common co-occurring disorders are often seen with bipolar disorder in children and adolescents?

Anxiety disorders and ADHD Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of early onset (before age 10) of bipolar disorder on prognosis?

Chronic and resistant course with poor long-term prognosis Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors is NOT recognized as a cause of bipolar disorder in children and adolescents?

Hormonal imbalances Signup and view all the answers

What treatment strategy is most commonly included for managing bipolar disorder in children?

Monitoring symptoms and psychotherapy Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following symptoms is primarily associated with Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) among children?

Significant impairment in functioning Signup and view all the answers

What is a common way in which depression is expressed during preteen years?

Social inhibition and low self-esteem Signup and view all the answers

How does depression in children typically affect their social relationships?

Disrupts daily routines and impairs social interactions Signup and view all the answers

Which co-occurring disorder is commonly seen alongside depression in children?

Conduct disorders Signup and view all the answers

As children age, how does the expression of depression typically change?

Translates to more identifiable symptoms with age Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic symptom of depressive disorders in children?

Anhedonia or loss of interest in activities Signup and view all the answers

What factor is most likely to lead to depression in children remaining untreated?

Lack of awareness and recognition of symptoms Signup and view all the answers

What is a key factor in diagnosing Major Depressive Disorder in children?

Cultural expressions of distress Signup and view all the answers

Which symptom is commonly observed in children with Major Depressive Disorder?

Persistent feelings of sadness Signup and view all the answers

How does Major Depressive Disorder typically affect social functioning in children?

Leads to social withdrawal Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following disorders is least likely to co-occur with Major Depressive Disorder in children?

Obsessive-compulsive disorder Signup and view all the answers

What developmental change is associated with increased rates of Major Depressive Disorder in adolescents?

Biological maturation and puberty Signup and view all the answers

Which factor most significantly affects the onset of Major Depressive Disorder symptoms in children?

Biological and developmental changes Signup and view all the answers

What is a distinguishing feature of Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD)?

Excessive anxiety about being apart from parents Signup and view all the answers

Which symptom is commonly associated with Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)?

Excessive worry about everyday occurrences Signup and view all the answers

What is a common characteristic of Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia)?

Marked fear of social or performance situations Signup and view all the answers

Which age group is most commonly affected by Selective Mutism?

Children aged 3-4 years Signup and view all the answers

Which statement reflects a common nature of Specific Phobias?

They usually onset around 7-9 years of age Signup and view all the answers

In terms of comorbidity, which statement is true regarding children with Social Anxiety Disorder?

A significant proportion also suffer from depression Signup and view all the answers

Which symptom is NOT typically associated with Generalized Anxiety Disorder?

Avoidance of social situations Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true regarding the diagnosis of Generalized Anxiety Disorder?

Three or more symptoms must be present for at least six months. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic that differentiates Specific Phobias from other anxiety disorders?

Fear that is disproportionate to the actual danger posed. Signup and view all the answers

Which symptom is commonly associated with anxiety disorders but not with Selective Mutism?

Excessive worry about health Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following would indicate a need for clinical assessment regarding possible anxiety disorder?

Experiencing significant distress or impairment affecting daily functioning. Signup and view all the answers

What differentiates Social Anxiety Disorder from Generalized Anxiety Disorder?

Fear of scrutiny or judgment in social situations. Signup and view all the answers

What factor is NOT included in the criteria for diagnosing Generalized Anxiety Disorder?

Substance use as a primary contributor. Signup and view all the answers

What is the average age of onset for Generalized Anxiety Disorder?

Early adolescence Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following disorders is most commonly associated with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)?

Disruptive Behavior Disorders Signup and view all the answers

What kind of therapies are primarily used to treat Anxiety Disorders, including OCD?

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy and exposure-based treatments Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a common effect of childhood OCD on daily functioning?

Increased engagement in normal activities Signup and view all the answers

Selective Mutism is characterized primarily by:

Inability to speak in certain contexts despite normal speech in others Signup and view all the answers

For children diagnosed with OCD, which treatment method is commonly avoided?

Benzodiazepines Signup and view all the answers

Which disorder is characterized by intense fear of separation from primary caregivers in children?

Separation Anxiety Disorder Signup and view all the answers

What is a common physical symptom associated with Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) in children?

Somatic complaints like stomachaches Signup and view all the answers

What symptom is commonly observed in Social Anxiety Disorder?

Inability to speak in certain social situations Signup and view all the answers

What most accurately describes children with Specific Phobias?

They experience heightened anxiety only in response to specific objects or situations. Signup and view all the answers

Which feature is indicative of Selective Mutism in children?

Consistent failure to speak in specific social situations Signup and view all the answers

Which disorder is likely to be diagnosed if a child shows symptoms of pervasive anxiety across various settings and situations?

Generalized Anxiety Disorder Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Intellectual Disability: Key Concepts and Theories

Evolutionary degeneracy theory attributed intellectual and social problems of children with intellectual disability to regression to an earlier period in human evolution.
In the eugenics movement, individuals with intellectual disability were considered a threat to society and were labeled as "imbecile" or "moron".
Eugenics emphasized the need to protect society from individuals with intellectual disability, rather than addressing their individual needs.

Diagnosis and Characteristics of Intellectual Disability

Intellectual disability is characterized by subaverage intellectual functioning and deficits in adaptive functioning.
IQ scores are used to diagnose intellectual disability, with an IQ of approximately 70 or below indicating intellectual disability.
Adaptive behaviors, such as personal and instrumental activities of daily living, are also used to diagnose intellectual disability.

Causes of Intellectual Disability

Genetic causes, such as Down syndrome, are the most common cause of intellectual disability.
Fragile-X syndrome is the most common cause of inherited intellectual disability.
Environmental factors, such as fetal alcohol syndrome, can also cause intellectual disability.
Chromosomal abnormalities, such as Klinefelter's syndrome, can also cause intellectual disability.

Racial and Socioeconomic Disparities in Intellectual Disability

Intellectual disability is more prevalent among lower socioeconomic groups.
The prevalence of intellectual disability is higher among minority groups.
The disparity in intellectual disability rates between black and white individuals is due to economic and social inequalities.

Development and Learning in Children with Intellectual Disability

Children with intellectual disability develop at a slower rate than typically developing children.
Children with intellectual disability may exhibit different patterns of development, such as slower language development.
Symbolic play and language development are areas of difficulty for children with intellectual disability.

Interventions and Support for Individuals with Intellectual Disability

Early intervention, such as self-instructional training, can improve cognitive and adaptive skills.
Family involvement and support are crucial for the development and well-being of individuals with intellectual disability.
Residential care and inclusion in regular education settings are options for individuals with intellectual disability.

Historical Context and Eugenics

The eugenics movement, popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, emphasized the need to protect society from individuals with intellectual disability.
The movement led to the development of labels such as "imbecile" and "moron" to describe individuals with intellectual disability.
The eugenics movement has been widely discredited and is no longer a valid scientific theory.

Contemporary Issues and Debates

The rising of IQ scores, known as the Flynn effect, is attributed to various factors, including improved living standards, education, and nutrition.
The inclusion movement and laws such as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act have led to increased opportunities for individuals with intellectual disability to be educated in regular education settings.### Gender Differences in Intellectual Disability
Gender differences in intellectual disability may be an artifact of identification and referral patterns rather than true differences in prevalence.
A true male excess of intellectual disability may exist due to X-linked genetic disorders such as fragile-X syndrome, which affect males more often than females.

Socioeconomic Status (SES) and Intellectual Disability

A link between SES and intellectual disability is found primarily among children in the mild intellectual disability range.
Diagnoses of mild intellectual disability increase sharply from near zero among children from higher SES categories to about 2.5% in the lowest SES category.
SES factors play a suspected role both in the cause of intellectual disability and in the identification and labeling of persons with intellectual disability.

Developmental-Versus-Difference Controversy

The controversy questions whether children with intellectual disability progress through the same developmental milestones in a similar sequence, but at different rates, or if they develop in a different, less sequential, and less organized fashion.

Learned Helplessness in Children with Intellectual Disability

Learned helplessness may arise in a child with intellectual disability due to the reactions of adults, who are less likely to urge the child to persist after failure.

Attachment in Children with Down Syndrome

Some children with Down syndrome may have problems developing secure attachments because they express less emotion than other children.

Diagnosing ADHD in Children with Intellectual Disability

The diagnosis of ADHD requires the presence of behavioral disturbance that is inappropriate for an individual's developmental level.
Attention spans, distractibility, and on-task behaviors vary considerably among individuals with profound intellectual disability.

Common Emotional and Behavioral Problems

Internalizing problems such as a decline in sociability, increased depression, and social withdrawal are typical in individuals with intellectual disabilities.
ADHD-related symptoms, Pica, and other self-injurious behaviors are also common.

Chromosomal Abnormalities

Chromosomal abnormalities can result in intellectual disability syndromes such as Down syndrome, Klinefelter's, and Turner's.

PKU and Intellectual Disability

Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a rare disorder occurring in approximately 1 in 15,000 individuals, caused by a recessive gene transmitted by typical Mendelian mechanisms.
PKU can result in intellectual disability if left untreated.

Teaching Nonverbal Children

Shaping is a procedure that can be used to teach a nonverbal child to say "hungry" by forming a list of responses that are progressively more similar to the target response.

Enhancing Children's Lives through Early Intervention

Recommendations for enhancing children's lives through early intervention include encouragement of exploration, mentoring in basic skills, and celebration of developmental advances.

Self-Instructional Training

Self-instructional training is beneficial for children who have developed some language proficiency but still have difficulty understanding and following directions.
Self-instructional training teaches children to use verbal cues to process information, keep themselves on task, and follow directions.

Intellectual Disability: Key Concepts and Theories

Evolutionary degeneracy theory attributed intellectual and social problems of children with intellectual disability to regression to an earlier period in human evolution.
In the eugenics movement, individuals with intellectual disability were considered a threat to society and were labeled as "imbecile" or "moron".
Eugenics emphasized the need to protect society from individuals with intellectual disability, rather than addressing their individual needs.

Diagnosis and Characteristics of Intellectual Disability

Intellectual disability is characterized by subaverage intellectual functioning and deficits in adaptive functioning.
IQ scores are used to diagnose intellectual disability, with an IQ of approximately 70 or below indicating intellectual disability.
Adaptive behaviors, such as personal and instrumental activities of daily living, are also used to diagnose intellectual disability.

Causes of Intellectual Disability

Genetic causes, such as Down syndrome, are the most common cause of intellectual disability.
Fragile-X syndrome is the most common cause of inherited intellectual disability.
Environmental factors, such as fetal alcohol syndrome, can also cause intellectual disability.
Chromosomal abnormalities, such as Klinefelter's syndrome, can also cause intellectual disability.

Racial and Socioeconomic Disparities in Intellectual Disability

Intellectual disability is more prevalent among lower socioeconomic groups.
The prevalence of intellectual disability is higher among minority groups.
The disparity in intellectual disability rates between black and white individuals is due to economic and social inequalities.

Development and Learning in Children with Intellectual Disability

Children with intellectual disability develop at a slower rate than typically developing children.
Children with intellectual disability may exhibit different patterns of development, such as slower language development.
Symbolic play and language development are areas of difficulty for children with intellectual disability.

Interventions and Support for Individuals with Intellectual Disability

Early intervention, such as self-instructional training, can improve cognitive and adaptive skills.
Family involvement and support are crucial for the development and well-being of individuals with intellectual disability.
Residential care and inclusion in regular education settings are options for individuals with intellectual disability.

Historical Context and Eugenics

The eugenics movement, popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, emphasized the need to protect society from individuals with intellectual disability.
The movement led to the development of labels such as "imbecile" and "moron" to describe individuals with intellectual disability.
The eugenics movement has been widely discredited and is no longer a valid scientific theory.

Contemporary Issues and Debates

The rising of IQ scores, known as the Flynn effect, is attributed to various factors, including improved living standards, education, and nutrition.
The inclusion movement and laws such as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act have led to increased opportunities for individuals with intellectual disability to be educated in regular education settings.### Gender Differences in Intellectual Disability
Gender differences in intellectual disability may be an artifact of identification and referral patterns rather than true differences in prevalence.
A true male excess of intellectual disability may exist due to X-linked genetic disorders such as fragile-X syndrome, which affect males more often than females.

Socioeconomic Status (SES) and Intellectual Disability

A link between SES and intellectual disability is found primarily among children in the mild intellectual disability range.
Diagnoses of mild intellectual disability increase sharply from near zero among children from higher SES categories to about 2.5% in the lowest SES category.
SES factors play a suspected role both in the cause of intellectual disability and in the identification and labeling of persons with intellectual disability.

Developmental-Versus-Difference Controversy

The controversy questions whether children with intellectual disability progress through the same developmental milestones in a similar sequence, but at different rates, or if they develop in a different, less sequential, and less organized fashion.

Learned Helplessness in Children with Intellectual Disability

Learned helplessness may arise in a child with intellectual disability due to the reactions of adults, who are less likely to urge the child to persist after failure.

Attachment in Children with Down Syndrome

Some children with Down syndrome may have problems developing secure attachments because they express less emotion than other children.

Diagnosing ADHD in Children with Intellectual Disability

The diagnosis of ADHD requires the presence of behavioral disturbance that is inappropriate for an individual's developmental level.
Attention spans, distractibility, and on-task behaviors vary considerably among individuals with profound intellectual disability.

Common Emotional and Behavioral Problems

Internalizing problems such as a decline in sociability, increased depression, and social withdrawal are typical in individuals with intellectual disabilities.
ADHD-related symptoms, Pica, and other self-injurious behaviors are also common.

Chromosomal Abnormalities

Chromosomal abnormalities can result in intellectual disability syndromes such as Down syndrome, Klinefelter's, and Turner's.

PKU and Intellectual Disability

Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a rare disorder occurring in approximately 1 in 15,000 individuals, caused by a recessive gene transmitted by typical Mendelian mechanisms.
PKU can result in intellectual disability if left untreated.

Teaching Nonverbal Children

Shaping is a procedure that can be used to teach a nonverbal child to say "hungry" by forming a list of responses that are progressively more similar to the target response.

Enhancing Children's Lives through Early Intervention

Recommendations for enhancing children's lives through early intervention include encouragement of exploration, mentoring in basic skills, and celebration of developmental advances.

Self-Instructional Training

Self-instructional training is beneficial for children who have developed some language proficiency but still have difficulty understanding and following directions.
Self-instructional training teaches children to use verbal cues to process information, keep themselves on task, and follow directions.

Chronic Depressive Disorders

Persistent Depressive Disorder (P-DD) is more chronic than Major Depressive Disorder (MDD).
Symptoms include poor emotion regulation, persistent sadness, self-deprecation, low self-esteem, anxiety, irritability, anger, and outbursts.
Children with both MDD and P-DD experience greater impairment compared to those with just one disorder.
Prevalence of P-DD is around 1% in children and 5% in adolescents, with MDD being the most common comorbidity.
Approximately 70% of children with depressive disorders may encounter a major depression episode.
Around 50% of children with P-DD have a history of nonaffective disorders prior to dysthymia.
Common onset age for P-DD is between 11-12 years, with childhood dysthymia lasting 2-5 years.
High risk exists for developing MDD, anxiety disorders, and conduct disorders later.
Depressive symptoms impact intellectual and academic functioning, causing difficulties with concentration and coordination.
Associated cognitive biases include negative thinking, hopelessness, suicidal thoughts, ruminative styles, and low self-esteem.
Socially, children with depression may have few close friendships and ineffective coping mechanisms in relationships.
A significant number consider suicide, with risk peaking in females and age brackets of 13-14 years often experiencing first attempts.

Theories and Causes of Depression

Psychodynamic Theories suggest depression stems from loss of a loved object and inadequate superego development.
Behavioral Theories focus on the role of learned behaviors and the lack of positive reinforcement in maintaining depression.
Cognitive Theories highlight negative thinking patterns: hopelessness theory explains self-blame for negative events, while Beck's model emphasizes negative interpretations of experiences.
Other contributing models include self-control, interpersonal, and socioenvironmental theories, alongside a diathesis-stress model and neurobiological perspectives.
Genetic predispositions are critical, alongside neurobiological factors like HPA axis dysregulation and neurotransmitter variances affecting emotional regulation.

Influences on Childhood Depression

Children of depressed parents face a 30-45% risk of developing depression themselves.
Family dynamics impact depressive outcomes through critical or punitive behaviors toward affected children.
Stressful life events, such as interpersonal stress and personal loss, act as pivotal triggers for depressive symptoms.
Emotional distress can hinder effective emotional state regulation, leading to chronic depression.
Treatment access disparities exist based on racial and ethnic background, with many children not receiving necessary support.
Effective treatments include Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and Interpersonal Psychotherapy for Adolescent Depression (IPT-A), focusing on interpersonal skills and emotional regulation.

Overview of Mood Disorders

Mood disorders range from severe depression to extreme mania, categorized by the DSM-5 into depressive disorders and bipolar disorders.
Depressive disorders involve persistent unhappiness and lack of interest, while bipolar disorder features mood fluctuations between sadness and elation.
Childhood depression affects daily routines, social dynamics, and academic performance, often co-occurring with anxiety or conduct disorders, leading to a high likelihood of being unrecognized or untreated.
Typical symptoms evolve with age, presenting differently from infants to preteens, highlighting the spectrum of depressive expressions.
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) in children is marked by significant impairments and a distinct list of symptoms necessary for diagnosis.

Psychosocial Interventions, Medication, Prevention, Bipolar Disorder

Psychosocial interventions integrate behavioral and cognitive strategies, including CBT and Interpersonal Psychotherapy for family-focused treatment.
Medication options, such as SSRIs, are explored for mood disorder management, despite potential side effects.
Preventative strategies emphasize CBT and interpersonal psychotherapy as effective methods for reducing depression risk.
Bipolar disorder is characterized by alternating depressed and elevated mood episodes, often leading to substantial impairment and the potential presence of co-occurring disorders.
The disorder comprises three subtypes: Bipolar I, Bipolar II, and Cyclothymic disorder, each presenting unique symptoms and challenges.

Major Depressive Disorder

Diagnostic criteria align for school-age children and adolescents, recognizing irritable moods more commonly reported in younger populations.
Required symptoms for MDD diagnosis include a combination of depressed mood, anhedonia, weight fluctuations, sleep disturbances, fatigue, feelings of worthlessness, and recurrent suicidal thoughts.
Symptoms must result in significant distress or functional impairment and cannot be attributed solely to substance use or medical conditions.
Normal responses to significant loss should be distinguished from major depressive episodes to ensure accurate diagnosis and intervention.

Chronic Depressive Disorders

Persistent Depressive Disorder (P-DD) is more chronic than Major Depressive Disorder (MDD).
Symptoms include poor emotion regulation, persistent sadness, self-deprecation, low self-esteem, anxiety, irritability, anger, and temper tantrums.
Children with both MDD and P-DD experience greater impairment than those with only one disorder.

Prevalence

P-DD prevalence: about 1% in children and 5% in adolescents.
MDD is the most common comorbid disorder with P-DD, affecting 70% of children diagnosed with Depression.
50% of children with P-DD have additional nonaffective disorders before dysthymia.

Onset, Course, and Outcome

Typical onset for P-DD occurs around ages 11-12, with a long duration ranging from 2 to 5 years.
Those with P-DD are at increased risk for developing MDD, anxiety disorders, and conduct disorders.

Associated Characteristics

Intellectual and academic functioning may suffer due to difficulty concentrating, loss of interest, and decreased thought and movement speed.
Cognitive biases include negative thinking, hopelessness, suicidal ideation, and pessimistic outlook on life.
Social struggles include few close friendships, social withdrawal, and dysfunctional family relationships.

Depression and Suicide

A significant number of youth with depression contemplate suicide, with females at considerable risk.
Peak ages for first suicide attempt linked to depression are 13 and 14.

Theories of Depression

Psychodynamic Theories: Focus on conversion of aggressive instincts into depressive affects due to loss of a love object.
Behavioral Theories: Stress the role of environmental consequences and lack of positive reinforcement in depression onset.

Cognitive Theories

Center on the link between negative thinking and mood; highlight "depressogenic" cognitions that contribute to depressive symptoms.
The Hopelessness theory posits that individuals prone to depression engage in negative attributional styles.

Other Theories

Explore concepts such as self-control, interpersonal influence, socioenvironmental factors, and neurobiological aspects.

Causes of Depression

Multiple pathways to depression arise from genetic predispositions and environmental stressors.
Familial behaviors, stressful life events, and prolonged emotional distress during childhood significantly contribute to its development.

Influences on Childhood Depression

Risk of developing depression increases by 30-45% if a parent has depression.
Neurobiological factors include abnormalities in brain regions governing emotional regulation and hormone dysregulation (HPA axis).
Effective treatments include Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and Interpersonal Psychotherapy for Adolescents (IPT-A); SSRIs are less effective than these therapeutic interventions.

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)

MDD prevalence in children aged 4-18 ranges from 2% to 8%, increasing two- to threefold during adolescence.
High comorbidity rates with disorders like anxiety, ADHD, and conduct disorders are observed.
Females are at greater risk post-puberty, and symptoms may appear gradually or suddenly, with average episodes lasting around eight months.

Bipolar Disorder in Children and Adolescents

Symptoms may include mood volatility, psychomotor agitation, and classic mania signs such as racing thoughts.
MDD can coexist with bipolar disorder; prevalence in youths aged 7-21 is between 0.5 to 2.5%.
Treatment often involves monitoring, education, medication (like lithium), and psychotherapeutic interventions.

Overview of Mood Disorders

Mood disorders encompass a spectrum from severe depression to extreme mania and are divided into depressive and bipolar disorders.
Children’s depression can impair daily routines, social relationships, and academic performance, often accompanying anxiety or conduct disorders.
The expression of depression evolves with age, becoming more identifiable in preteens through symptoms of low self-esteem and self-blame.

Description of Anxiety Disorders

Anxiety is a mood state marked by strong negative emotions and physical tension, anticipating future threats.
Anxiety disorders involve debilitating anxieties and can manifest in various forms.
Many children with anxiety disorders experience multiple types concurrently.

Associated Characteristics

Children with anxiety disorders exhibit cognitive disturbances, physical symptoms, social and emotional deficits, and comorbid anxiety and depression.

Cognitive Disturbances

Disturbances in information perception and processing affect intelligence and academic performance, despite normal IQ levels.
High anxiety levels can lead to academic challenges, and those with generalized social anxiety may abandon school.
Children show threat-related attentional biases, focusing on potentially threatening information.

Cognitive Errors and Biases

Perceptions of danger trigger confirming thoughts, and children with anxiety see themselves as having less control over anxiety-inducing situations.

Physical Symptoms

Somatic complaints like stomachaches and headaches are common in children with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder (PD), and social anxiety disorder (SAD).
90% of children with anxiety disorders report sleep-related issues, including nocturnal panic.
High adolescent anxiety correlates with reduced risks of accidents and deaths in early adulthood.

Anxious children display low social performance, high anxiety in social interactions, and struggle with self-esteem and loneliness.
They have difficulty understanding emotions and differentiating thoughts from feelings.
Children with multiple anxiety disorders are more at risk for depression.

Gender, Ethnicity, and Culture

Girls show higher incidences of anxiety disorders, suggesting genetic and neurobiological factors.
Anxiety experiences are universal, but ethnicity and culture influence symptom expression and understanding.

Theories and Causes: Early Theories

Classical psychoanalytic theory links anxieties and phobias to unresolved unconscious conflicts.
Behavioral theories view fears as learned behaviors maintained through conditioning.
Bowlby's attachment theory emphasizes the role of early attachments in developing anxiety and avoidance behaviors.

Temperament

Inherited neurochemical differences can lead to individual variations in behavioral reactions to anxiety.
Behavioral inhibition (BI) is linked to greater anxiety risk, with development influenced by gender, maternal stress, and parental responses.

Family and Genetic Factors

Approximately one-third of childhood anxiety symptoms have a genetic basis, particularly related to serotonin and dopamine systems.
No direct link exists between specific genetic markers and types of anxiety disorders.

Neurobiological Factors

Multiple interrelated systems control the anxiety response: HPA axis, limbic system, prefrontal cortex, and brain stem.
An overactive behavioral inhibition system may develop from early life stressors, and brain abnormalities are noted in anxious children.

Family Factors

Overinvolved or intrusive parenting is common in families with anxious children, alongside high family dysfunction and low socioeconomic status.
Insecure attachments in early life precede increased anxiety risk.

Treatment and Prevention Overview

Therapeutic focus includes exposure to anxiety-inducing stimuli, modifying distorted thinking, physiological responses, and avoidance behaviors.

Experiencing Anxiety

Moderate anxiety can enhance functioning, but excessive, uncontrollable anxiety can be debilitating.
The fight or flight response is activated during perceived threats.

Anxiety Response Systems

Physical: Involves heightened sympathetic nervous system response and fight/flight reactions.
Cognitive: Leads to feelings of apprehension, difficulty concentrating, and panic.
Behavioral: Triggers escape responses and aggression in threatening situations.

Symptoms of Anxiety

Physical: Symptoms include increased heart rate, dizziness, nausea, muscle tension.
Cognitive: Includes thoughts of being harmed or feeling inadequate and difficulties concentrating.
Behavioral: Avoidance strategies like immobility, fidgeting, or nail biting.

Anxiety Versus Fear and Panic

Anxiety is future-oriented and may occur without real danger, while fear is present-oriented in response to current threats.
Panic is characterized by physical fight/flight symptoms occurring unexpectedly.

Normal Fears, Anxieties, Worries, and Rituals

Normal fears vary by age and can become debilitating if persistent or overwhelming.
Patterns of fears can change as a child develops.

Common Fears and Anxieties

Early infancy: Loss of caregiver and intense sensory experiences.
Late infancy (6-8 months): Separation anxiety and stranger anxiety become prominent.
Toddlerhood (12-18 months): Increased anxiety related to separation from parents.### Childhood and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders
Anxieties are common among children and adolescents, encompassing a variety of fears and behaviors.
Notable examples include separation anxiety, test anxiety, and excessive concern about competence or harm to a parent.

Normal Anxieties in Development

Girls typically display more anxiety than boys, although symptoms may stabilize with age.
Moderate worry can aid children in preparing for future challenges; excessive worry may indicate a disorder.

Anxiety Disorders Overview

Seven main categories include Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD), Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD), Specific Phobia, Social Anxiety Disorder, Panic Disorder, Agoraphobia, and Selective Mutism.

Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD)

Typical from age 7 months to preschool years; excessive anxiety about being apart from parents indicates SAD.
Prevalence is 4-10% in children; more common in girls and often comorbid with other anxiety disorders and depression.
SAD generally onset between ages 7-8; it can progress from mild to severe, with stressors like moving or changing schools.

School Refusal Behavior

Often occurs in ages 5-11, manifesting as difficulty attending class beyond separation anxiety.
Untreated school refusal can lead to serious long-term consequences.

Specific Phobia

Approximately 20% of children experience specific phobias, commonly encountered between ages 7-9.
More prevalent in girls; phobias pertaining to animals or natural disasters are among the most common.

Characterized by persistent fear of social exposure and embarrassment; peaks in early to mid-adolescence.
Affects 6-12% of children, predominantly girls, with a high comorbidity rate for other anxiety disorders and depression.

Selective Mutism

Occurs in about 0.7% of children, characterized by the inability to speak in specific social situations despite normal communication in others.
Average onset is 3-4 years, often linked to social anxiety.

Panic Disorder

Features sudden and intense panic attacks with physical symptoms; less common in children but prevalent in adolescents.
Onset of panic attacks begins generally between 15-19 years; those with panic disorder often have comorbid anxiety disorders or depression.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

Involves pervasive and uncontrollable worry about everyday events, affecting roughly 2.2% of children equally across genders.
Symptoms often include physical manifestations such as headaches and muscle tension, with average onset in early adolescence.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Characterized by recurrent obsessions (intrusive thoughts) and compulsions (ritualistic behaviors), with a lifetime prevalence of 1-2.5%.
Onset typically occurs at ages 9-12, with many affected individuals maintaining symptoms into later life.

Treatment Approaches for Anxiety Disorders

Behavior therapy includes exposure to feared stimuli and systematic desensitization; critical for assisting children without reliance on escape/avoidance.
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is highly effective, often combined with exposure treatments.
Family interventions can enhance treatment effects by addressing anxiety disorders within the family context.
Medications, particularly SSRIs, effectively reduce symptoms, especially in OCD; however, CBT remains the primary recommended treatment.

Psychopharmacological Treatments

SSRIs such as Fluvoxamine, Sertraline, Clomipramine, and Fluoxetine are prescribed based on age and specific disorders.
Certain medications, like Paxil and benzodiazepines, should be avoided due to limited effectiveness in children.

Diagnostic Criteria for Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

Must demonstrate excessive worry and anxiety occurring more days than not for at least six months, alongside physical symptoms impacting social or occupational functioning.

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This quiz covers topics related to intellectual disability, evolutionary degeneracy theory, and the eugenics movement, as discussed in Psychology Chapter 5.