Psychology Chapter 5: Behaviorism and Conditioning

Introduction to Behaviourism

• The behaviourist approach focuses on learning through environmental interactions.
• Learning can occur through stimulus-response or reinforcement.
• Focuses on observable behaviour rather than internal mental processes.
• This approach highlights simple principles of learning.

Classical Conditioning

• Classical conditioning, a form of learning, involves associating two stimuli.
• Ivan Pavlov's research with dogs demonstrated classical conditioning.
• A neutral stimulus (e.g., a bell) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food) triggering an unconditioned response (e.g., salivation).
• After repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response.
• The classic example is a dog salivating at the sound of a bell, learned after having that sound paired with the food.

Classical Conditioning: Key Elements

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.
• Unconditioned Response (UCR): The automatic, natural response to the UCS.
• Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially does not trigger the UCR.
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The neutral stimulus, after repeated pairings with the UCS, now triggers a response.
• Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus (CS).

Classical Conditioning: Applications and Examples

• This learning process can explain phobias and develop emotional responses.
• It can be used to understand and treat several disorders and habits.
• The pairing of a specific type of food with an illness can lead to a learned aversion to that food.

The Little Albert Experiment

• Conducted by John Watson and Rosalie Rayner.
• Demonstrated the acquisition of phobias through classical conditioning.
• A neutral stimulus (white rat) was paired with a loud noise, resulting in a fear response (conditioned).
• The fear response generalized to other similar stimuli (furry objects).

Spontaneous Recovery

• The return of a conditioned response (CR) after it appears to have been extinguished.
• This can happen even when the conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (UCS) are no longer presented together.

Blocking Effect

• The presence of an already-conditioned stimulus prevents learning of a new conditioned stimulus response.
• This new unrelated stimulus is blocked in its effect when the previously conditioned stimulus already exists.

Kamin's Experiment

• Experiment with rats to show the importance of the order of presenting stimuli associated with an outcome in conditioning.

Operant Conditioning

• A learning process in which the consequences of behavior influence its repetition.
• Behaviour is directly affected by rewards and punishments.
• B.F. Skinner and his experiments using the Skinner box were key in its discovery.

Operant Conditioning: Key Concepts

• Reinforcement: Strengthening a behavior by following it with a desirable consequence.
• Punishment: Weakening a behavior by following it with an undesirable consequence.
• Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus.
• Negative Reinforcement: Removing an undesirable stimulus.
• Positive Punishment: Adding an undesirable stimulus.
• Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs.
• Partial reinforcement: Reinforcing a behavior some but not all the time.
• Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforcement after a fixed number of responses.
• Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforcement after a variable number of responses.
• Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforcement after a fixed time interval.
• Variable-interval schedule: Reinforcement after a variable time interval.

Shaping

• Training complex behaviours by rewarding successive approximations of the desired behaviour.

Superstitious Behaviors

• Behaviors that are unintentionally linked to reinforcement or punishment, despite having no causal connection.

Punishment

• A process of weakening a behaviour by providing an undesirable consequence. 
• Often a negative approach to behaviour change versus reinforcement.

Token Economy

• System using tokens (rewards) to reinforce desirable behaviors.
• Can be used to motivate and teach good behaviours.

Latent Learning

• Learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement, but is later demonstrated when reinforcement is provided.

Observational Learning

• Learning from observing others' behaviors and their consequences.

Behaviour Therapy

• Therapy using principles of classical and operant conditioning to change behaviors.
• Aversion therapy is a technique for associating an undesirable behavior with an unpleasant stimulus.
• Token economy reinforces desirable behaviours with tokens that can be exchanged for rewards.
• Programmed learning presents material in small steps, with reinforcement for correct responses.