Psychology Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 1: Introducing the World of Psychology

• Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes.
• Critical thinking steps: Ask questions, evaluate evidence, reach conclusions.
• Five domains of modern psychology: Biological, Cognitive, Developmental, Social/Personality, Mental/Physical Health (how each views the field).
• Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) review research to ensure ethics and protect participants.
• Ethical concerns in research: Privacy, confidentiality, informed consent, protection from harm.
• Five steps of the scientific method: Question, hypothesis, testing, analysis, reporting.
• Hypothesis: A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.
• Descriptive research methods: Observational studies, self-reports (surveys/interviews), case studies.
• Correlation: Measures the relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 to +1.
  • Positive correlation: As one variable increases, the other increases.
  • Negative correlation: As one variable increases, the other decreases.
• Directionality problem: Uncertainty about cause-and-effect in correlational studies.
• Third-variable problem: A confounding variable influencing the relationship.
• Experimental method: Manipulating one variable to observe its effect on another.
  • Independent variable: Manipulated variable.
  • Dependent variable: Measured variable.
  • Control group: No treatment.
  • Experimental group: Receives treatment.
  • Random sampling: Every member has an equal chance of being selected.
  • Random assignment: Participants placed into groups randomly.

Chapter 7: Memory - Guiding Questions

• Memory: The ability to store and retrieve information.
  • Three processes: Encoding, storage, retrieval.
• Selective attention: Focusing on one piece of information while ignoring others.
• Types of memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin's model):
  • Sensory memory: Large capacity, short duration.
  • Short-term memory: Small capacity, short duration.
  • Long-term memory: Large capacity, long duration.
• Working memory: Temporary system for processing information.
• Chunking: Grouping information into meaningful units.
• Maintenance rehearsal: Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory.
• Elaborative rehearsal: Connecting new information to existing knowledge for long-term storage.
• Primacy and recency effects: Tendency to remember items at the beginning or end of a list.
• Networks of associations: Groups of related ideas.
• Anterograde amnesia: Inability to form new memories after an injury.
• Retrograde amnesia: Inability to remember past events before an injury.
• Explicit memory (declarative): Consciously recalled memories (episodic, semantic).
• Implicit memory (non-declarative): Unconsciously recalled memories (procedural).
• Prospective memory: Remembering to do something in the future.
• Consolidation: Strengthening memories for long-term storage.
• Reconsolidation: Changing memories when retrieved before being stored again.
• Retrieval cues: Stimuli that trigger memories.
• Context-dependent memory: Remembering better in the same environment as learning.
• State-dependent memory: Remembering better in the same emotional or physical state.
• Mnemonics: Memory aids.
• Flashbulb memories: Vivid, detailed memories of emotionally significant events.
• Forgetting:
  • Retroactive interference: New information interferes with remembering old information.
  • Proactive interference: Old information interferes with remembering new information.
  • Blocking: Temporary inability to recall information.
  • Absentmindedness: Forgetting due to lack of attention.
  • Memory bias: Changing memories to fit current beliefs.
  • Misattribution: Assigning a memory to the wrong source.
  • Suggestibility: Being influenced by misleading information.