Psychology Chapter 1: Introduction

Study Notes

Chapter 1: Introducing the World of Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes.
Critical thinking steps: Ask questions, evaluate evidence, reach conclusions.
Five domains of modern psychology: Biological, Cognitive, Developmental, Social/Personality, Mental/Physical Health (how each views the field).
Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) review research to ensure ethics and protect participants.
Ethical concerns in research: Privacy, confidentiality, informed consent, protection from harm.
Five steps of the scientific method: Question, hypothesis, testing, analysis, reporting.
Hypothesis: A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.
Descriptive research methods: Observational studies, self-reports (surveys/interviews), case studies.
Correlation: Measures the relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 to +1.
- Positive correlation: As one variable increases, the other increases.
- Negative correlation: As one variable increases, the other decreases.
Directionality problem: Uncertainty about cause-and-effect in correlational studies.
Third-variable problem: A confounding variable influencing the relationship.
Experimental method: Manipulating one variable to observe its effect on another.
- Independent variable: Manipulated variable.
- Dependent variable: Measured variable.
- Control group: No treatment.
- Experimental group: Receives treatment.
- Random sampling: Every member has an equal chance of being selected.
- Random assignment: Participants placed into groups randomly.

Chapter 7: Memory - Guiding Questions

Memory: The ability to store and retrieve information.
- Three processes: Encoding, storage, retrieval.
Selective attention: Focusing on one piece of information while ignoring others.
Types of memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin's model):
- Sensory memory: Large capacity, short duration.
- Short-term memory: Small capacity, short duration.
- Long-term memory: Large capacity, long duration.
Working memory: Temporary system for processing information.
Chunking: Grouping information into meaningful units.
Maintenance rehearsal: Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory.
Elaborative rehearsal: Connecting new information to existing knowledge for long-term storage.
Primacy and recency effects: Tendency to remember items at the beginning or end of a list.
Networks of associations: Groups of related ideas.
Anterograde amnesia: Inability to form new memories after an injury.
Retrograde amnesia: Inability to remember past events before an injury.
Explicit memory (declarative): Consciously recalled memories (episodic, semantic).
Implicit memory (non-declarative): Unconsciously recalled memories (procedural).
Prospective memory: Remembering to do something in the future.
Consolidation: Strengthening memories for long-term storage.
Reconsolidation: Changing memories when retrieved before being stored again.
Retrieval cues: Stimuli that trigger memories.
Context-dependent memory: Remembering better in the same environment as learning.
State-dependent memory: Remembering better in the same emotional or physical state.
Mnemonics: Memory aids.
Flashbulb memories: Vivid, detailed memories of emotionally significant events.
Forgetting:
- Retroactive interference: New information interferes with remembering old information.
- Proactive interference: Old information interferes with remembering new information.
- Blocking: Temporary inability to recall information.
- Absentmindedness: Forgetting due to lack of attention.
- Memory bias: Changing memories to fit current beliefs.
- Misattribution: Assigning a memory to the wrong source.
- Suggestibility: Being influenced by misleading information.