Psychology: Approaches and Origins

Approaches in Psychology

• Psychology became a distinct entity due to Wundt's application of empirical methods, leading to the development of new psychological approaches.
• Psychology's two major assumptions state the following:
  • All behavior can be seen as deterministic
  • Behaviors can be observed under different conditions.
• The major assumptions led to the scientific method, which refers to methods that are objective and replicable.

Origins/Emergence of Psychology

• In the 1900s, behaviorists believed only observable things could be studied.
  • Objective and replicable scientific methods were used to control and predict behavior.
• In the 1950s, cognitive psychologists compared the mind to a computer.
  • Researchers made inferences through lab experiments, since mental processes couldn't be directly observed.
• In the 1980s, the biological approach used scanning techniques and genetic testing to investigate the brain and understand the relationship between genes and behavior.

Introspection

• Introspection involves analyzing one's own thoughts and feelings internally, focusing on responses to different stimuli and gaining insights into mental processes.
  • Introspection was seen as scientific due to standardized instructions and controlled conditions that allowed replication.

Wundt

• Wundt was the first to separate philosophy and psychology and founded the Leipzig laboratory.
  • He only studied behaviors that could be strictly controlled, such as reaction time, sensation, and perception.
• Wundt broke down behaviors into basic elements, leading to structuralism.

Evaluation of Emergence of Psychology as Science

• Subjective data is present when studying psychology, particularly in the humanistic approach, which is also subjective.
  • Humanistic psychology believes humans respond to demand characteristics; it mentions human beings are free and will seek to do good.
• Wundt's work provided a foundation for other approaches, and his experiments were a catalyst for the development of lab studies.

Evaluation

• Research on introspection is not scientific because private experiences are unobservable and subjective.
  • Individual opinions were regarded by wundt, however. Introspection lacks reliability, since participants may have different thoughts, failing to get similar results.
  • Other behaviorists got reliable results that could be easily generalized.
• Introspection is still considered useful, and was used to make "happiness" measurable.
  • Some argue introspection provides little knowledge of causes, since processes occur outside conscious awareness.
  • Introspection wouldn't uncover the reasons for this.

Theory 1: Classical Conditioning

• Classical conditioning is learning through association, occurring when two stimuli are paired.
• Classical conditioning's important features:
  • Timing is crucial; the unconditioned stimulus and neutral stimulus must be presented simultaneously.
  • Stimulus generalization allows the conditioned animal to also respond to similar stimuli.
  • Extinction occurs when the conditioned behavior is extinguished if the conditioned stimulus is presented without association.

Classical Conditioning Stages

• A neutral stimulus causes no response.
• An unconditioned stimulus causes an natural response.
  • An unconditioned stimulus leads to an unconditioned response.
  • An unconditioned and neutral stimulus leads to leads to an unconditioned response.
  • A conditioned stimulus results in a conditioned response.

Pavlov's Experiment

• Food leads to dog salivation
• A Bell is rung at the same time as the presentation of food, which leads to salivation
• A bell rung on its own then leads to dog salivation.

Theory 2: Operant Conditioning

• Learning in operant conditioning occurs through consequences of behavior.
• Positive reinforcement involves giving a reward after behavior.
• Punishment occurs after behavior.
• Negative reinforcement involves stopping something unpleasant after the desired behavior.
• Shaping involves only reinforcing behaviors that move toward a target behavior

Behaviorist Approach

• The Skinner box uses Hungry rats and a lever -Pressing the lever results in food being delivered -Learning that pressing the lever results in food is positive reinforcement.
  • Shocking then pressing the lever stops the shock and that results is negative reinforcement

Evaluation of the Behaviorist Approach

• Behaviorist approach is primarily deterministic.
  • All behavior is controlled by past experiences, so no free will exists
  • Behavior can inform parents on how to raise children.
• Evidence is a major feature of the Behaviorist approach.
  • A lot of scientific lab studies provide this evidence, and help to find cause and effect
  • A lot of studies on animals suffer animal anthropomorphism.
• Applications of the Behaviorist approach include:
  • Token economies in prisons
  • Good behavior yields tokens
  • Also yields treatments
  • Only works in the short term
  • Limited to the present environment

Assumptions

• Assumptions inherent in the Behaviorist approach include:
  • We are born a blank state and behavior is learned and does not biological influence.
  • Only observable behavior must be studied.
  • The basic process of learning is the same for all species.
  • Study how animals learn behavior, This can be applied in humans

Evaluation of Research Studies

• Research is performed under high control over IV/extraneous variables.
  • The relationship between IV/DV can be established.
  • Limited generalization can occur due to lab setting.
• No demand characteristics are present.
  • Animals will not behave in certain way to please or screw you study
  • However whether said studies carried out on animals can be applied to human beings is up for debate
• The main ethical issue around the Behaviorist approach is the treatment of animals.
  • Animals are kept hungry or thirsty order to motivate a behaviour.
  • This type of approach doesn't follow an ethical code of conduct.
  • Some say that experiments are fine if benefit outweigh the cost, as research has lead to treatments.
  • Systematic desensitization.

Vicarious Reinforcement

• Vicarious reinforcement involves observing someone else being reinforced for their behavior, which makes others want the same reward for similar actions.
• To avoid punishment, observing the behavior that has led to punishment is also factored in to deter repeating those behaviours.

SLT-Bandura

• People tend to imitate those they deem more admirable.
  • These are known as "role models"
• Modelling includes learning/carrying out the observed behavior/attitude.
  • Live models are teachers or parents
  • Symbolic models, in media
• Identification factors into the extent that someone relates to a model. -Identification determines if someone is likely to perform the behavior,
  • Identification is influenced by characteristics of the model, the observer's ability to perform the behavior, and the consequences of that behavior.

Assumptions

• Agrees with what Behaviorist are saying mostly:
  • Learning comes through the experience.
  • Reinforcement is what comes by observing others.
  • All mediational processes that lie between stimulus/response are essential for learning.
• The scientific experiments are very objective

Evaluation of SLT Approach

• The Social Learning Theory (SLT) approach is deterministic, but less so than behaviorism as the person has processes which enable them to choose whether to perform the behaviour or not.
• Parents can learn that there is potential for influence through modelled behavior on the child
• Evidence for this theory comes from Bandura's studies.
  • Bandura suggests that we have free will.
• Applications for social learning include explaining how people develop aggressive behaviours, as well as gender-typical behaviours.
  • It is virtually impossible to stop exposure to negative models being witnessed, however.

Study: Bandura et al

• The study aims to demonstrate observational or imitative learning
• Method in study A:
  • Children put in a room and aggressive towards a bobo doll-no consequences, just observation
• Results of the Bobo doll study:
  • Children showed more aggression than kids who saw non-aggressive adult
• Method in study B: Same scenario:
  • 1st group adult praised
  • 2nd group adult told off
  • 3rd group-no consequences
• Results of study B:
  • 1st group-more aggressive
  • 2nd group-Less aggressive
• Concusion
  • model behaves agressively then Child is more likely to behave aggressive
• Demonstration study showed that the consequences of imitation
  • Modelled violent behaviour, those imitation violent behavior, showing the positive effects
  • The ones that do not show are the negative outcomes

4 Mediational Processes

• Attention involves noticing another's behavior and paying attention
• Retention involves memorizing what the observed behaviour
• Motor reproduction involves applying the learned behaviours
• Motivation involves acting out the behaviours, if there is a reason behind it

Evaluation of SLT Research

• SLT includes primarily high control variables.
  • Extraneous variables are taken into consideration
  • The validity is ecological, however
• The SLT Demand characteristics include certain study groups that may be difficult to take into consideration.
• Ethical issues arise from the use of children in SLT.
  • Children's thoughts may change once they reach certain age
  • Before Bandura, many thought violent role models reduced aggressive behavior

Neurochemistry

• Neurochemistry happens through transmission via cerebral fluid.
  • Peripheral nervous system neurons have that transmit to/from central nervous system
• Dopamine is an excitatory neurotransmitter and associated with drive/motivation.
  • High levels of Dopamine are directly associated with Schizophrenia
• Serotonin an is inhibitory transmitter and is associated with maintainable behaviour and stable mood.
  • Lower levels of Seratonin is directly associated with depression

The Nervous System

• The Nervous System is split into to main parts:
  • The somatic nervous system which transmits information that is received by the senses, CNS and CNS muscles.
  • Then autonomic nervous system which is divided parts:
    • Sympathetic nervous system, which increases bodily activities.
    • Parasympathetic nervous system, that decreases or maintains bodily activities.

Evaluation of Bio Approach

• A primary criticism of the biological approach is that it's deterministic, and only sees it in human behaviors due to biological no free will.
  • Not all who have those issues carry it out.
• Ethical concerns are considered as individuals made.
• Some may take antipsychotics by law if "anger"
• Evidence for the Bio Apprach includes:
  • Twin studies
  • How differences in environmental conditions give cause to various differences

Scanning Techniques

• Scanning techniques include PET, MRI, FMRI, and EEG
• Used pet scans to compare brain activity and murders people
  • Diffs in preforontal cortex
• These findings suggest association with agression behaviour
• Raine Et al. (1997) utilized PET scans to comparing activity in murderers and "normal" people

Assumptions

• To understand Human factors, one must biological structure and processes
• This is to under certain functions that explain feeling and behaviour of genes
• The two explain evolutionary expectations: Genetope, Phenotype

Evaluation of Scientific Equipment

• PET scans a very objective, although can be said to be reductionist
• Complex behaviors lead to reduced parts of the brain,
• Radioactive injections are to be reduced.

Evaluation of Twin Studies

• They are perfect
• Similar participants from different regions are a great to great value from
• Same environment are good reason for correlation
• Adoption studies are good, but can vary and differ.

Theoretical Model

• Not an exact copy of the things being studied, although it is very representative
• Test Components and can adjust is
• An info approach.

The Roles of Schemas

• Set of knowledge that helps organize the mind, beliefs with what expected
• Helps what to heard and observe
• Helps one to respond in everyday life situations
• Allows thoughts to be set quickly

Cognitive Neuroscience

• Scientific study of the mind that gives links of frontal processing

Evaluation of Cognitive approach

• Sofrer determination that gives the importance of free will
• Can produce the evidence

Assumptions

• To look at mental processes of the memory etc.
• Some that are hard to notice is often very indirectly
• MInd works like a computer
• Input is senses, output is behaviours

Case Study Patient H.M.

• Patient with seizers, and hippopotamus was remove, improved the mind because it would always retrieve information

Case studies

• How great amount of information in which one is unable
• One source that is uncertant

Defence Mechanisms

• There are mechanisms which are often triggered unconsciously - reduces levels of axienty, and the reasons often cannot explained
  • Repressions, denials, displacements,
  • Displacement is when a person is unable to express that thoughts.

Structure of Personality

• There are three distinct parts of the mind:
  • id, ego and saparago
• the id has contents: which causes instant thoughts and gratification
  • the ego balances the impulsive id and morals
  • then superar ago is morals and beliefs

Assumptions

• the assumption includes the following
  • Id's part, is how we were born
  • The ego acts to balance impulsive nature and the Super ego acts as our right or wrong.
  • rational minds act to create the unconscious minds to be there to defence all mechanisms

Phallic Stage

• Oecipus complex is when boys desire mothers
• They look at their father's competition.

Latent age

• Issues with this can repress childhood areas
• Genital one is when desire becomes clear by sexual experiences

Case Studies for Litte Han

• Little hans showed fear after horses falling on a accident; but showed symptoms for complex after Oedidpus

Evauation

• There may be some biases within high logical, a high genuine

Theoretical model

• A representation of the thing being studied not an exact copy. •Allow's components to be tested individually lexamined in detail •If data doesn't "fit"-model can be adjusted Info processing approach: Info sensoryShort-termLong-term attention, rehersalstorageofregistration memorymemory decayorsub-systems interference orretrieval memory

Evaluation and application

• The main topic in this course include memory and language aspects that create a unique experience

self actualization

• That it is important to reach fill potential through experiences
• That mosilows is only reached by most
• With traits such creative accepting of all

The cell and conurence

• The best way to the that is according to reasons, postive regard

Assumption

• Idiographics or take their
• The free will may can not the biological