Psychology: A Scientific Study

Psychology: A Scientific Study

• Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and human behavior.
• Often confused with psychiatry, which diagnoses and treats mental illnesses.
• Psychology is considered a science due to its use of evidence-based research, the scientific method, and fact-based reporting.
• Roots of psychology are in the 19th century, with Wilhelm Wundt opening the first institute for experimental psychology in 1879.
• Psychology separated from philosophy as a scientific field.

Early Psychology: Introspection and Reductionism

• Wilhelm Wundt used introspection, the analysis of one's own feelings, thoughts, and emotions, to study the mind.
• Limited by its subjectivity and lack of numerical data.
• Wundt believed in reductionism: the idea that all phenomena can be reduced to simple cause-and-effect relationships.

Is Psychology a Science?

• Psychology is debated whether it belongs to hard sciences like biology or softer sciences like political science.
• It shares characteristics with other sciences such as objectivity, control, predictability, hypothesis testing, and replication.
• Challenges to viewing psychology as a science include its reliance on extraneous variables and the difficulty of directly examining the mind and brain.

The Behavioral Approach: Learning Theory

• Focuses on observable behavior and learning.
• Pioneered by John Watson in the early 20th century.

Three Assumptions of Behaviorism

• Learning: Most human behavior is learned.
• Similar Learning: Animals and humans learn in similar ways.
• Mind is Irrelevant: Only observable behaviors are measurable and important, not internal mental processes.

Research Methods in Behaviorism

• Understanding learning mechanisms is the primary research goal.
• Animal studies are commonly used due to their cost-effectiveness and ease of control but raise ethical concerns.
• Lab experiments are favored to measure observable behaviors, like reaction times and frequency of actions.

Classical Conditioning: Pavlov's Dogs

• Demonstrates how learning occurs through association between stimuli.
• Pavlov's experiments involved pairing a neutral stimulus (bell) with a naturally eliciting stimulus (food) to produce a conditioned response (salivation).

Principles of Classical Conditioning

• Generalization: Stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus elicit the conditioned response.
• Discrimination: Stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus do not elicit the response if not paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
• Extinction: Conditioned response diminishes when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
• Spontaneous Recovery: Extinct conditioned response can reappear after a period of time without the conditioned stimulus.
• Higher-Order Conditioning: A new conditioned stimulus can evoke the conditioned response through its association with the initial conditioned stimulus.

Operant Conditioning: Consequences of Actions

• Learning occurs through the consequences of actions.
• Key processes include:
  • Positive Reinforcement: Receiving rewards for desired behaviors.
  • Negative Reinforcement: Avoiding negative consequences for desired behaviors.

Skinner's Experiments: Rats and Painful Shocks

• Used rats and painful electric shocks to demonstrate operant conditioning.
• Highly criticized for their ethical implications.

Evaluating the Behavioral Approach

• Strengths: Extensive scientific evidence supporting classical and operant conditioning.
• Weaknesses: Heavy reliance on animal studies with dubious ethics and limited generalizability to humans.
• Further Concerns: Reductionistic view, unethical human studies, like the infamous "Little Albert" experiment.

Social Learning Theory: Observing and Replicating Behavior

• Expands on behaviorism by examining social behavior and vicarious reinforcement.
• Developed by Albert Bandura in the 1960s.

Key Concepts in Social Learning Theory

• Vicarious Reinforcement: Learning through observing others being rewarded for specific behaviors, making us more likely to replicate those behaviors.

Conditions for Vicarious Learning

• Attention: Paying attention to the behavior being observed.
• Retention: Remembering the observed behavior.
• Reproduction: Being able to replicate the observed behavior.
• Motivation: Believing that imitating the behavior will lead to similar rewards.

The Cognitive Approach: Processing Information

• Focuses on how we perceive, process, and interpret information from the world around us.
• Attempts to explain and predict behavior based on mental processes such as memory, perception, language, and attention.

Reductionistic Nature of the Cognitive Approach

• Often compares human mental processes to computers, with inputs, processes, and outputs.
• Develops computer models and theoretical models to understand human behavior.

Types of Experiments in Cognitive Psychology

• Laboratory Research: Controlled environment, limited generalization but high control over variables.
• Field Experiments: Natural setting, higher ecological validity but less control over variables.
• Natural Experiments: Observation of naturally occurring events, high ecological validity but limited control.

Post-World War II Development of Cognitive Psychology

• Emerged in the 1950s-1960s, influenced by advancements in computing technology.

Key Principles of Cognitive Psychology

• Limited Capacity: Our mental processing capabilities are limited, similar to computer memory.
• Control Mechanism: The brain and conscious mind oversee mental processes (like the CPU in a computer).
• Two-Way Flow of Information: Information is taken in through senses and outputted as behavior and emotions.

The Computer Model in Cognitive Psychology

• Illustrates how information is processed and used to generate actions and emotions.
• Takes in sensory information, processes it through the brain, and generates outputs.

Differences Between Computers and Humans

• Humans have emotions and motivations, while computers don't.
• Computers can experience glitches and problems, while human mental processes are more complex.

The Importance of Studying the Cognitive Approach

• Provides insights into how our minds work and how we interact with the world around us.
• Helps us understand how memory, attention, perception, and other mental processes influence our behavior and emotions.

Human Memory

• Humans have an infinite memory capacity in theory, but it is not always reliable, and we sometimes incorrectly remember things
• Computers have a limited memory capacity, but it is always reliable

Schema

• A schema is defined as everything you know about an object, event, or concept
• For example, the schema of a car is that it has four wheels, doors, an engine, and seats
• Schemas help us organize and process information and adapt as we learn
• If new information is consistent with our existing schema, it is added to it
• If new information is inconsistent with an existing schema, an accommodation must be made - the existing schema must change to deal with the new information
• There are three main types of schema
  • Role Schemas: Contain information about people in roles, like doctors, teachers, and parents
  • Event Schemas: Contain information about certain events like birthday parties or going to a cafe
  • Self-Schemas: Contain information about ourselves, our skills and personality

Cognitive Neuroscience

• It combined cognitive psychology with medical neuroscience to explain and predict behavior
• Several techniques have been developed to help us map brain function
  • Lesion Studies: Examining brains and behavior of patients with physical brain damage to determine which parts are responsible for specific functions
  • Electrophysiology: Uses electrical and magnetic fields to examine brain function
  • Neuroimaging: Uses imaging techniques like PET scans to create a structural map of the brain

Cognitive Approach Evaluation

• Strengths:
  • Considers mental processes and brain functions, which are often ignored by other approaches
  • Approaches psychology as a hard science and seeks to link physical brain function to behavior
  • Has been useful in developing therapies and biological medicines
• Weaknesses:
  • The computer model is reductionist and ignores individual differences
  • Much of the research is conducted in a lab, which limits ecological validity
  • Can be considered too computer-based, ignoring free will

Biological Approach

• Assumes human behavior can be explained and predicted by biological factors like biochemistry, evolution, and genetics
• Assumes mental illness or socially undesirable behavior can be cured using biological techniques
• Assumes animal studies inform us about human biology because of shared DNA and similar bodily functions
• Genetics:
  • Most people have 23 pairs of chromosomes, one from each parent
  • Each chromosome is made of DNA which is divided into genes
  • Most genes don't affect appearance, traits, or behaviors, but some do
  • Genotype: Genetic makeup, our actual DNA
  • Phenotype: Displayed characteristics resulting from our DNA

Evolution

• The theory of Evolution by Natural Selection was first proposed by Charles Darwin in the 19th century
• Natural selection is the mechanism by which evolution occurs
• Individuals with traits best adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on their genes
• This leads to the gradual evolution of a species, better suited to its environment

Twin Studies

• Identical twins share 100% of their genes, making them useful for studying the influence of genetics on behavior
• Twin studies typically produce correlational results, meaning they suggest a relationship but not a cause-and-effect link
• Example: A study found a 48% chance of developing schizophrenia if one identical twin did, compared to 17% in non-identical twins, suggesting a genetic component to the disease

Adoption Studies

• If an adopted child displays similar characteristics to their adoptive siblings, it suggests the behavior is not genetic
• Example: A study found that schizophrenia was likely genetic, and not dependent on the environment

Ethical Issues in Twin and Adoption Studies

• Difficult to obtain informed consent from children involved in the research
• Can cause harm or distress to the children

Biological Approach Evaluaiton

• Strengths:

  • Invaluable in investigating and potentially curing conditions like aggression, memory loss, and schizophrenia
  • Neurochemistry can provide explanations for behavior, such as the link between dopamine and schizophrenia

• Weaknesses:

  • Ignores individual circumstances, differences, and environmental factors
  • Reduces complex behaviors to biological explanations, potentially minimizing individual responsibility
  • Much of the evidence is based on animal studies, which may not generalize to humans

Psychodynamic Approach

• Focuses on change within the mind
• Assumes behavior is caused by factors buried within the unconscious mind
• Assumes we have basic physical needs and motivations
• Assumes childhood experiences have a massive impact on our psyche and later behavior

Levels of Consciousness

• Conscious: What we are currently aware of
• Pre-Conscious: Memories and experiences we can recall easily
• Unconscious: Memories, preferences, and fears we are not directly aware of, but they still influence our behavior

Personality Components

• Id: The basic, animalistic part of our personality, containing basic needs
• Ego: Conscious and unconscious, rational, and aims to balance the Id and Superego
• Superego: Conscious and unconscious, contains our morals and principles, and produces guilt

Defense Mechanisms

• Repression: Unwanted thoughts or memories are pushed into the unconscious
• Denial: Refusal to accept reality or traumatic events
• Displacement: Directing negative feelings onto another object or individual

Psychosexual Stages of Development

• Oral Stage (birth - 18 months): Infants focus on sucking behavior
• Anal Stage (18 months - 3.5 years): Fixation on feces and defecation
• Phallic Stage (3.5 - 6 years): Focus on genitals and the Electra/Oedipus complex
• Latency Stage (6 years - puberty): Repressed sexual urges
• Genital Stage (puberty - adulthood): Awakening of overt sexual urges

Psychodynamic Evaluation

• Strengths:

  • First to focus on root causes of mental illness
  • First to link psychological illness with biological needs
  • Led to the development of therapy

• Weaknesses:

  • Limited empirical evidence
  • Many theories are difficult to test
  • Some theories are controversial, like the Oedipus complex

Sigmund Freud

• Freud sought to turn psychology from a discipline of pure research into one of treatment
• Freud s claims and theories are all based on case studies and interpretation
• Freud s theories can be subjective since they relate to the mind
• Psychoanalysis and therapy require a dedicated highly trained therapist
• Freud's methods linked children, parents, and sex

Humanistic Psychology

• Humanistic psychology studies the needs of the individual holistically
• Humanistic psychology believes people are inherently good and have the potential to reach their full potential
• Humanistic psychology focuses on the emotions and feelings of the individual
• Humanistic psychology believes people have free will and are in control of their feelings
• Maslow developed a hierarchy of needs that places an individual s physical and emotional needs in context

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

• The basic survival needs are food, water, sleep, shelter, and sex
• The safety need is the need to feel physically safe and free from danger
• The love and belonging need is the need to feel loved and be part of a group
• The esteem need is the need for positive self-regard and regard from others
• Self-actualization is when a person has achieved all of their previous needs and has reached their full potential

Self-actualization

• Self-actualized people have a strong sense of self-awareness
• Self-actualized people have an accepting view of themselves
• Self-actualized people can handle the unknown and uncertainty
• Self-actualized people are creative

Carl Rogers

• Rogers believed in the idea of self-actualization
• Rogers believed that we gradually move towards self-actualization by eliminating blockages
• Rogers believes that our self-concept is based on unconditional positive regard from others
• Rogers developed a form of therapy known as client-centered or person-centered therapy
• The therapist in client-centered or person-centered therapy acts reflexively, almost like a sounding board

Understanding Humanistic Psychology

• Humanistic psychology is positive and focuses on feelings, potential, and individual needs
• Humanistic psychology is not deterministic as it takes into account free will
• Humanistic psychology is holistic as it takes the whole individual into account
• Humanistic psychology is subjective and difficult to approach with a scientific mindset
• This approach can ignore underlying problems like genetic disorders and trauma

Explore the foundations of psychology as a scientific discipline, tracing its roots from its philosophical origins to its establishment as a distinct field by Wilhelm Wundt. This quiz covers key concepts like introspection and reductionism and the ongoing debates about psychology's scientific status.