Intro to Psychology: Everyday Life and Science

• Overview of Introduction to Psychology by Sandra Co Shu Ming

Psychology in our Everyday Lives

• Psychology integrates into everyday experiences like decision-making, problem-solving, habits, emotions, interactions, and culture.
• Group activity suggestions include sharing relatable experiences, skits, stories, songs, or presenting findings on how psychology appears in daily life.

What is Psychology?

• Psychology involves scientifically studying behavior and mental processes
• Behavior includes outward actions and reactions like talking, facial expressions, and movement.
• Mental processes comprise internal, covert activities such as thinking, feeling, remembering, problem-solving, memory, and intelligence.
• A scientific approach requires using the scientific method to study psychology

Goals of Psychology

• Description aims to observe and note everything about a behavior
• For example, observing the gender disparity among computer scientists and why females might avoid the field.
• Explanation involves developing a tentative explanation to build a theory
• For example, women feeling they do not belong in masculine environments could partially explain the gender disparity in computer science
• Prediction determines what will happen in the future
• For example, if wanting more women in computer science, changing either the environment or the perception of the environment is required
• Control aims to change behavior from undesirable to desirable
• For example, shifting women away from avoiding academic majors might promote more equality in career choices

History of Psychology

• Plato believed psyche was a path to psychology
• Aristotle explored the questions around the mind, behavior, and knowledge
• Renaissance (16th - 17th century): Rene Descartes emphasized dualism (mind and body distinction)
• Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology lab in Germany in 1879 which marked the formal beginning of psychology as a scientific discipline
• He focused on structuralism and breaking down mental processes into basic components
• Wundt called himself a "psychologist," and is considered the Founding Father of Modern Psychology
• He aimed to apply the scientific method to study the mind

Schools of Thought

• Functionalism (1890s): William James highlighted adapting to the environment
• Psychoanalysis (1890s): Sigmund Freud delved into the unconscious mind, dream analysis, and psychosexual development
• Behaviorism (1900s): John Watson and BF Skinner emphasized observable behaviors and environmental influences
• Gestalt Psychology (1900s): Max Wertheimer emphasized the whole as greater than the sum of its parts in perception and problem-solving

Expansion and Diversification

• Cognitive Revolution (1930s-1950s) rejected limitations of behaviorism
• It focus was on mental processes like memory, language and decision making with researchers such as Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky.
• Humanistic Psychology: Carl Robers and Abraham Maslow emphasized human potential, self-actualization, and well-being
• 1970s - 1980s Integration with Neuroscience
• Advances in neuroimaging like MRI and PET scans helped the study of brain behavior relationships
• Biological psychology explored genetics, neurotransmitters, brain structure and how they impact behavior
• Contemporary Psychology: Positive Psychology, Cultural Psychology, Applied Psychology, Technology Integration

Contemporary Psychology

• 1990s - Present
• Positive Psychology focusing on happiness, resilience, and strength
• Cultural Psychology focusing on the role of cultural and social contexts in shaping behavior
• Applied Psychology includes forensic, industrial-organizational, and health psychology
• Technology integration uses AI, virtual reality, and big data in research and therapy

Psychology Timeline

• 387 BC stated that the brain controls the mental processes
• 335 BC stated that the heart controls our mental processes
• 1879 AD first formal laboratory for psychology was opened
• 1883 AD first laboratory of psychology in America was established
• 1886 AD Sigmund Freud begins preforming therapy
• 1892 AD The American Psychological Association was founded

Branches of Psychology

• Basic side focuses on theory and building knowledge with social, personality, Evolutionary, behavioral, Cognitive, Biological and Developmental aspects
• Applied side focuses on solving real-world problems with Sports, school, I/O, Clinical, counseling, Educational, and Forensic aspects

Fields of Psychology

• Clinical Psychology: Focus on diagnosing and treating emotional, mental, and behavioral disorders in hospitals or mental health clinics
• Cognitive Psychology: Study mental processes such as memory, problem-solving, and language to improve educational methods
• Developmental Psychology: Understand how people grow and change throughout their lifespan in schools and child development centers
• Social Psychology: Influence of individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors by social interactions with research on conformity and prejudice for marketing
• Industrial-Organizational Psychology: Applies psychological principles to improve workplace productivity through better training programs
• Behavioral Psychology: Examines how behavior is learned and influenced by the environment to treat phobias
• Neuropsychology: Investigates the relationship between brain function and behavior to study effects of traumatic brain injuries
• Health Psychology: Explores psychological factors affecting physical health and illness to design campaigns that will push healthy behaviors
• Forensic Psychology applies to legal and criminal justice systems through profiling and assessing mental states
• Educational Psychology: Focuses on effective teaching methods and curriculum design
• Experimental Psychology: Conducts lab experiments to understand human behavior and to advance psychological theory
• Environmental Psychology: Examines how physical environments affect behavior and stress levels
• Sports Psychology: Enhances athletic performance and helps athletes with focus
• Positive Psychology: Focus on factors that contribute to human happiness and well-being

Scientific Method

• The methodology is used to test the ideas about behavior
• There is a set of rules for gathering and analyzing information
• First define & describe the issue to be studied relating to relevant research
• Second form a testable research hypothesis operationalizing the relevant variables
• Following forming the idea create an appropriate research strategy with subjects and data
• With the data, analyses are made to either support or reject the initial thoughts
• The study is then replicated to verify results and legitimacy to further the findings

Hypothesis

• Predictive hypothesis predicts relationship when researcher measures interest variables
• Causal hypothesis states how one variable will affect another to cause change in behavior

Sampling in Research

• A sample is a portion of the population used for a study
• In a representative one, the sample mirrors the whole population
• With a random type the study involves every member being selected randomly
• Convenience type uses people who are easily accessible to the researcher
• Non-representative ones limit the conclusion to the population at large

Random vs Purposeful Sampling

• Random sampling uses quantitative data
• Random sampling has larger sample sizes
• Is generalizable to the population
• Purposeful sampling uses qualitative data
• Purposeful sampling has smaller sample sizes
• Is specific and rich

Types of Research Methods

• predictive hypothesis, researchers use methods where they cannot manipulate variables
• Naturalistic observations, case studies, surveys, and correlational research fall under this category

Naturalistic Observation

• This observes subjects in their natural environment

Naturalistic Observation - Definition

• Research in which individuals are observed in natural environments without interference to understand behavior in its most authentic form
• Goodalls's chimp research as an example

Naturalistic Observation - Definition

• Observing chimpanzees in the wild and recording their social interactions.
• Also, Piaget's child development research that observes children playing and examines cognitive stages.

Case Studies

• They're in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event, or community
• Allows researchers to retain real-life characteristics of events
• This has widely been used by Sigmund Freud conducting detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients

Case Studies Types

• Including individual case study, social groups, organizations and events

Case Study - Advantages

• Offers in-depth, rich insights into specific, complex situations.

Case Study - Disadvantages

• Often lacks generalizability due to its focus on specific instances.

Surveys

• These are research methods that ask large groups of people about the relevant attitudes, beliefs and/or behaviors
• Questions have to be clear, with a larger more representative sample size
• Wording, the sample and participant honesty are crucial and can influence results

Survey Research - Definition

• The study of a whole population using sociological and psychological variables

Survey Method: Techniques Used

• Interview
• Questionnaire
• Other techniques such as telephone, sms, online survey

Correlations Advantages/Disadvantages

• rapid development, fast admin, flexible design, low cost, access to traditionally hard-to-reach ones
• It also uses sampling, self selection bias, internet access, computer literacy and technical problems

Correlation

• correlation measures the relationship between two or more variables by using data between them
• Research does not control the relationships, but measures the reliable realtionships
• Correlational statistic measures the strength of the data

Experiments

• They measure results with causal hypothesis
• They measure whether the study has control over the manipulation of the conditions of the tested group
• The measured result is compared

Experimental Research

• Involves manipulating variables to determine and establish cause-and-effect relationships controlled through randomized tests.

Experimental Design Advantages

• It is the only form of research that can establish cause and effect
• It allows the researcher precise control over variables.

Experimental Design Disadvantages

• They're often artificial and cannot be conducted due to ethical concerns.

Placebo Effect

• When participants show a change simply due to the beliefe of a treatment
• Must show measurable change to be considered a placebo effect

Double-Blind Studies

• In these type of studies neither experimenters nor the participants know to which group the subjects are in

Confounding Variables

• External factors in an experiment that affect the variables and introduce error.