Psychology 270: Chapter 4 Theories

Psychology 270: Research Methods

• Course is covering Chapter 4: Psychological Theories

• Project Updates: Do not change or complete your survey. Participate in others' surveys by November 17. Each survey is 5 minutes and can be completed in multiple sessions. Provide high-quality data. Each survey provides a 4-digit code for participation confirmation. Enter the code into the relevant Canvas quiz. Students can opt out of any survey.

• Other Updates: Exam 2 results will be posted during the reading week. No office hours during reading week. SONA alternative assignment due November 17. SONA participation possible until the end of the term.

• Chapter 4: Psychological Theories Outline:

  • Phenomena and Theories
  • The Variety of Theories in Psychology
  • Using Theories in Psychological Research

• 4.1: Phenomena and Theories:

  • Define phenomenon and theory. Distinguish between the two.
  • Explain purpose of scientific theories.
  • Explain why there are typically multiple plausible theories for any phenomenon.
  • Phenomenon: Reliably observed results in systematic empirical research. Established answer to a research question. Examples: Blindsight, bystander effect, fundamental attribution error, McGurk effect, other-race effect, placebo effect, mere exposure effect, serial position effect, spontaneous recovery.
  • Replication: Conducting a study again, exactly as is or with modifications, to confirm results.
  • Why Phenomena May Not Replicate: Original results are a Type I error. Replication study differed from the original study. Moderators: Contexts where a phenomenon occurs differently. Example: Performance on tasks when observed compared to not observed.
  • Psychological phenomena often have exceptions or factors that moderate their occurrence, unlike laws in other sciences.

• 4.1: Theories:

  • Theories: Coherent explanations or interpretations of one or more phenomena. Explain variables, structure, process, function, and principles that are not directly observed.
  • Organize related evidence and phenomena
  • Often can have multiple competing or complementary theories for the same phenomenon. Example: Social support.

• 4.1: Related Ideas:

  • Perspective: Broad approach, more general than a theory (e.g., Biological perspective, Feminist perspective).
  • Model: Precise explanation often expressed mathematically.
  • Hypothesis: Explanation relying on key concepts making predictions about a phenomenon.

• 4.1: What are theories For?:

  • Organize phenomena to aid thinking and interpretation.
  • Parsimony (Occam's Razor): Include only necessary concepts to explain phenomena.
  • Enable predictions in new situations (e.g., social support theories in social media).
  • Generate new research questions.

• 4.1: Multiple Theories:

  • Many phenomena are explained by multiple theories.
  • Theories can be complementary (explaining different aspects) or competing (e.g., buffering vs. main effects models of social support).

• 4.2: Variety of Theories:

  • Describe dimensions along which theories in psychology differ.
  • Examples of various types of theories.

• 4.2: Formality:

  • Formality: Extent to which theory components and their relationships are clearly specified.
  • Varies from informal (simple verbal descriptions) to formal (mathematical equations) theories.

• 4.2: Scope:

  • Scope: Number and diversity of phenomena explained/interpreted
  • Early theories were broad, imprecise, and difficult to test; broad tend to be less formal than narrow theories.

• 4.2: Theoretical Approach:

  • Functional theories ("why"): Explain psychology in terms of function or purpose. Example: Evolutionary psych.
  • Mechanistic theories ("how"): Focus on variables, structures, and processes; how they interact. Example: Social support & health.

• 4.2: Stage & Type Theories:

  • Stage theories: Series of stages in development/adaptation. Example: Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Erikson's psychosocial stages; Piaget's cognitive stages.
  • Typologies: Categorize people/behavior into types. Example: Basic emotions, personality dimensions.

• 4.3: Using Theories:

  • How psychologists test theories.
  • How psychologists re-evaluate theories with new findings.
  • Ways to incorporate theory into research.

• 4.3: Theory Testing and Revision:

  • Hypothetico-deductive method: Researchers use theory and predict observable outcomes. Researcher chooses a theory, makes a prediction (hypothesis), conducts study, re-evaluates theory based on results to form conclusions.

• 4.3: Constructing a Theory:

  • Must know phenomena details and existing theories. New theory must coherently explain phenomena and offer some advantage. Often start with an existing theory.

• 4.3: Deriving Hypotheses:

  • Theories & hypotheses have if-then relationships. Can be rephrased as questions. Best hypotheses distinguish competing theories. Example: Social support theories.

• 4.3: Evaluating Theories:

  • Supported hypotheses strengthen theory. Unsupportive weaken theory. Can identify exceptions or areas where theory does not apply; new evidence can only strengthen, not prove theory.

• Looking Ahead:

  • Friday: Chapter 11, research presentation.
  • November 13 and 15: No class, midterm break.
  • Complete data collection assignment by November 17.

This quiz focuses on Chapter 4 of Psychology 270, which covers Psychological Theories. You will explore definitions, distinctions between phenomena and theories, and the role of scientific theories in psychological research. Prepare to delve into the variety of theories used within the field.