Unit 10

• Introduction to Developmental Psychology for Week 10 of Psych 2410B, instructed by Dr. Raha Hassan on March 31, 2025 covers gender development.

Chapter Outline:

• Topics include sex and gender, theoretical explanations, milestones, patterns of gender development, and empirical readings.

Sex, Gender and Gender Expression:

• Sex and gender possess distinct meanings.
• Gender expression is separate from sex and gender.

Gender Identity:

• Terms are commonly used regarding people's gender identities, gender socialization, gender expression, and gender-related statuses in society.
• Gender identity options include cisgender, transgender, and nonbinary (genderqueer).
• Nonbinary identities include gender-fluid, bigender, and agender.

Gender Socialization:

• Gender as it relates to socialization is described.
• Gender-typing, gender-typed, cross-gender-typed and gender nonconforming are ways gender relates to socialization.

Problems with the gender binary:

• Problems within the gender binary regarding neuroscience is shown through the concept that no brain structure is unique to only one sex.
• Androgens and testosterone are present in all humans, and hormone levels are situation-dependent, showing behavioural neuroendocrinology problems with the gender binary
• Gender psychology has problems with the gender binary in that individuals display feminine-typed and masculine-typed behaviours.
• Transgender and nonbinary identities exist worldwide and across time, showing research on transgender and nonbinary individuals and problems with the gender binary
• Cultural practices establish gender as a binary category, showing developmental intergroup theory and research and it's issue within the gender binary.

Groups' Relative Statuses in Society:

• Minoritized groups include marginalized and subordinate members of society subjected to discrimination.
• Gender-minoritized groups: cisgender girls/women, transgender/nonbinary individuals.
• Sexual-minoritized groups are people who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, or queer.
• Individuals can belong to multiple minoritized categories based on gender, sexual orientation, race, and other characteristics.

Other Group Status Terms:

• Stereotypes: Generalized beliefs/expectations about individuals based on group membership.
• Prejudice: Biased attitudes toward persons based on group membership.
• Discrimination: Biased treatment toward persons based on group membership.

Comparisons: Girls and Boys:

• Researchers identified small gender differences with considerable overlap between genders.
• Substantial variation appears within each gender.
• Effect size measures statistical differences.
• Meta-analysis summarizes average effect size and statistical significance across studies.
• Gender similarities hypothesis: Similarities far outweigh differences when comparing girls and boys.

Theoretical Explanations for Gender Development:

• Physiological influences involve genes, hormones, brain function, and brain structure.
• Hormones involved are androgens; organizing and activating influences
• Children form expectations that guide behavior and shape motivations.
• Theories of gender development include gender schema theory, social identity theory, social cognitive theory, and developmental intergroup theory.

Gender Schema Theory:

• Gender schemas are organized mental representations (concepts, beliefs, memories) about gender, including gender stereotypes.
• Ingroup/outgroup gender schema categorizes people/objects associated with one's gender ingroup.
• Own-gender schema consists of accumulated knowledge and beliefs associated with one's self-identified gender.
• Impact of construction on information processing including biased processing and recall, noticing ingroup events, accurately encoding consistent behaviour, and distorting inconsistent information.
• Dual-pathway model of gender schemas involve cognitive filters, gender schema filters, interest filters, gender schematic, and gender aschematic tendencies.
• There is no known research between gender schemas for transgender and nonbinary children and their affect on information processing.

Social Cognitive Theory:

• Theory distinguishes among three learning modes, emphasizing observational learning.
• Sociocognitive modes: tuition, enactive experience, and observational learning.
• Observational learning of gender-role information has four key processes: attention, memory, production, and motivation.
• Self-socialization in gender development involves self-regulation: self-efficacy, practice, social modeling, and social persuasion.

Social Identity Theory:

• Addresses the influence of group membership on people’s self-concepts and behavior with others.
• Ingroup bias, ingroup assimilation, and between-group contrast are used.
• Three processes occur after a person identifies with a group: ingroup biases, ingroup assimilation, and between group contrast.
• High-status group members are invested in group boundaries more than low-status, including cisgender boys and cross-gender behaviour
• Intersectionality: People identify other social groups based on sexual orientation, race/ethnicity, and religion.

Developmental Intergroup Theory (DIT):

• DIT involves interconnection of identities like gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and class.
• It is concerning regarding overlapping systems of discrimination or disadvantage.

Key Processes Mitigating Psychological Salience of Gender:

• Psychological salience of gender contribute to gender-based stereotyping and prejudice.
• Psychological salience of gender is established through perceptible physical attributes, disproportionate activity/group representation, gender label use, and gender-based organization of activities.

Categorization, Stereotyping, and Prejudice:

• Categorizing individuals is based on gender.
• Establishment of gender salience are factors to to gender-based categorize people.
• Developing stereotypes and prejudice are based on categorization.
• Group-attribute associations, essentialism, and ingroup biases play a part.

Cultural influences Part 1:

• The larger cultural and social structure has an impact on gender development.
• Urie Bronfenbrenner developed the bioecological model.
• Interconnection is described between the microsystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
• Economic and social resources are offered by the macrosystem in the bioecological model and people's understanding of these resources are an opportunity structure.
• Patriarchy is also a cultural influence.

Milestones in Gender Development - Prenatal Development:

• At 6 weeks, ovaries or testes are formed.
• At 7-10 weeks, two sets of ducts are formed, Müllerian ducts, Wolffian ducts (testosterone, MIS).
• Between 8-12 weeks external genitalia form.
• Genetic males produce dihydrotestosterone (DHT).
• Bipotentiality is present.

Variations in Prenatal Sexual Differentiation:

• Presence/absence of hormones like testosterone, MIS, and DHT determines if the embryo forms male/female internal reproductive structures and external genitalia.
• Intersex conditions have differences in sex development.
• Individuals of one genetic sex can develop genitalia associated with the other sex, both sexes, or underdeveloped genitalia associated with their genetic sex.

Intersex Conditions Examples:

• Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH).
• This results in a condition during prenatal development in which adrenal glands produce high levels of androgens.
• Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS), which is a condition of prenatal development.
• Androgen receptors malfunction in genetic males impede the formation of male external genitalia.
• Children may be born with female external genitalia, usually identify as girls, and prefer feminine-stereotyped play.

Infant and Toddler Milestones:

• Infants show perceptual categorization.
• During the first year, infants recognize physical differences between prototypical women and men using perceptual cues.
• Toddlers show conditioned associations of objects/activities that are repeatedly linked to behavior.
• Toddlers form gender-stereotypical conditioned associations from experiences observing environment patterns.

Early Childhood Milestones:

• Early childhood results in conceptual categorization.
• Between 2.5 and 3 years, children use gender terms in speech and establish gender identity.
• From 2-6 years, gender stereotypes are rapidly learned across multiple content domains.
• Ingroup identity and conformity pressures supersede behavioral compatibility for gender segregation.
• Similar patterns occur across diverse cultures.
• Young transgender children are not confused about their gender identity.

Gender Attitudes in Early Childhood:

• Highly rigid gender stereotypes and attitudes, showing limited gender constancy.

Essentialist thinking:

• Limited cognitive flexibility, also common among transgender children.
• Gender-typed play and interest occur.
• Gender-segregated peer affiliations

Gender-Typed Play and Interests in Early Childhood:

• There are demonstrated preferences for some gender-typed toys.
• Cisgender boys prefer construction toys, balls and physical activity, toy cars/vehicles, and action-adventure play.
• Cisgender girls prefer dolls, dress-up, and playing house.
• Research indicates large average gender differences in preferences, with some variability.
• Many cisgender children are rigid in their preferences; others are more flexible.
• Some children prefer cross-gender-typed play and dislike gender-typed play.
• Transgender prefer activities associated with their self-identified genders.

Gender Segregation in Play:

• Increase in social play time occurs between preschool and 1st grade occurs when kids spend time with their own gender.
• Decrease in playtime results for playmates or the other gender.

Gender-Segregated Peer Affiliations in Early Childhood:

• Around age 3, gender segregation begins before increasing until age 6 and remains stable.
• Affiliation is primarily with same-gender peers and avoidance of other-gender peers; across cultures.
• Transgender children prefer affiliating with same self-identified peers.
• Social dosage effect is seen as belonging relates to playtime spent with same-gender peers.

Explanations for Preschool Children's Same-gender Peer Preferences:

• Factors involve a combination of temperamental, cognitive, and social forces.
• Behavioral compatibility and cognitive consonance hypotheses account for this.

Gender Constancy in Middle Childhood:

• Gender constancy around age 6 is related to understanding the stability between the gender identity for person, that does not usually change over time.
• Gender consistency indicates that gender does not usually change through different situations.
• Ideas about gender are consolidated, but some differences may be recognized.
• Transgender children (cisgender siblings) are more likely than cisgender children to express the view that a person's gender could change.

Social Understanding of Gender in Middle Childhood:

• Ages 9-10: Clear understanding of "gender" as a social category.
• There is recognition of gender roles and social conventions and understanding of violating norms.
• Increased consciousness of gender-based prejudice and discrimination toward minoritized groups.
• Cognitive prerequisites, individual factors, and situational factors are all shown.

Social Understanding of Gender-Typed Behaviors in Middle Childhood:

• Gender-typed play and interests can occur.
• Cisgender girls and boys prefer gender-typed play and other interests, are more rigid among cisgender boys.
• Gender-segregated peer affiliations occur.
• Most cisgender girls/boys spend time primarily in same-gender peer group.
• Cisgender girls and boys construct their own "gender culture".
• Mixed-gender contacts regularly occur in certain contexts like private or public settings.

Physical Development in Adolescence:

• Series of dramatic bodily transformations (puberty) happens.
• Girls are typically taller than boys.
• This all happens from approximately 12-18 years.
• Puberty happens; menarche and spermarche occur.
• A body image is formed.

Gender-Segregated Peer Affiliations in Adolescence:

• Peer dynamics affect that results in peer affiliations are primarily with same-gender members
• Mixed-gender groups are common.
• Strict rules are in place regarding mixed-gender contacts in certain cultural settings.
• Intimacy and friendship are important.
• Increased intimacy happens in these friendships through sharing feelings/thoughts.
• Girls generally disclose more; boys use varied shared activities.
• Mixed-gender platonic friendships exist, especially with supportive peer environments.

Gender-Role Flexibility and Gender Intensification in Adolescence:

• The recognition of gender roles as social conventions and adoption towards interests is gender-role flexibility.
• Family and peer social support and culture promote.
• Heightened concerns about adhering to traditional gender roles is known as gender-role intensification and occurs during adolescence like dating scripts and sexual double standards.

Ambivalent Sexist Attitudes and Traditional Gender Roles in Adolescence:

• Ambivalent sexism represents unequal power dynamics in heterosexual relationships.
• Hostile sexism: Dominance and disparagement
• Benevolent sexism: Protective attitudes within traditional relationship

Gender Identity: Dimensions:

• Three dimensions are relevant to gender identity: felt gender typicality, gender-role contentedness, and gender centrality.

Physiological Influences of Variations in Gender Identity Development:

• Influences are seen with intense gender-typed or cross-gender-typed interests.
• Physiological mechanisms may influence (girls with CAH; boys with AIS).
• Strong sense of typicality or mismatch exists with assigned gender ingroup.

Cognitive and Motivational Influences Part 1 :

• Cognitive development is a process of self-socialization.
• Balanced identity model, stereotype emulation hypothesis, stereotype construction hypothesis, and identity construction hypothesis happen.

Family Influences:

• Globally, children are assigned gender identities at birth.
• Parents reinforce genders through labels, names, clothing, and toys.
• There is a recent shift toward diverse toys, particularly for daughters.
• Mothers tend to be more flexible than fathers.
• Parents support gender-nonconforming children.
• Such acceptance correlates with positive psychological adjustment in youth.

Teacher and Peer Influences:

• Teachers implement routine verbal labeling, organize activities based on gender, use portrayal of limiting role models in books/course and show stereotypes toward traditional gender identities in students.
• Gender-segregated peer groups result through fit, acceptance - group affiliation/identification and affirmation of alternative conceptions through interaction of like-minded friends (nonconforming interests).
• there is Peer support of self-identified gender for transgender and nonbinary children.

Media and Culture Influences:

• Children are heavily exposed to stereotypes.
• Identities, interests, attitudes, and behaviors are influenced.
• Societal gender inequalities are a cultural factor.
• Children's opportunities and identities are limited.
• Support for gender equality results in accepting sexual- and gender-minoritized individuals.

Cognitive Abilities and Academic Achievement:

• Link to earlier gender and academic success impacts adult positions and equality.
• Variances in the interests and achievements in academic setting between students impacts jobs and the salary.
• Need to address possible gender gaps seen in academic motivation. to get societal balance with more women high up.

General Intelligence and Overall Academic Achievement:

• Boys and girls share similar general intelligence levels.
• Boys are more prevalent at both extremes in intellectual abilities.
• Girls tend to outperform boys in academic achievement.
• The have Higher levels of school adjustment, better overall grades, and higher and bachelor's degree rates
• Gender differences vary based on culture and socioeconomic factor.

Verbal and Spatial Skills and Achievement:

• Verbal skills include Slight edge in early language development that the Girls have a slight in early fluency and vocab.
• There is only minimal differences in general verbal but in writing and writing the Gals dominate and the boys are prone to to speech issues.
• Verbal and spatial skills exist
• There are some but small spacial skills advantages that boys have.

STEM-Related Skills and Achievement:

• STEM gender disparities persist with concerns about gender disparities in STEM fields.
• These disparities cause an impact on women being represented.
• There is a significant closure in the a "math gender gap" at low levels the only some countries have girls doing better then men.
• There is still Underrepresentation for women in Underrepresentation in physical sciences and technology such as computer science.

Explanations for Gender Differences in Cognitive Abilities:

• Researchers describe biological, cognitive-motivational, and cultural factors in cognitive abilities and achievement.
• Brain and hormonal, cognitive & motivational, family, teacher, peer, and cultural are all factors.

Brain and Hormonal Influences:

• There are still Small average differences in structure and function between are very small.
• Physiology influences exist from sex hormones existing during baby phases.
• Androgens play role.
• The fact that "Boys are good at spatial stuff" is a factor and biology influences but also can be influenced in childhood factors.

Cognitive and Motivational Influences Part 2:

• Plays crucial role in youth academic factors to better themselves in different aspects.
• there is value to Expecting value to occur to to play a role.
• Gender is all all over academic subjects- so motivation and trust must be shape with value with the topic.
• the motivational beliefs show that can come from high achievement during young age can later determine how they see goals.

Family Influences:

• This refers to expectancy value that they value at home.
• parents see certain norms, which can impact child ability in the given area.
• There is a trend is is that if have has the privilege of white, math gender can be more likely to occur then black and others.
• parents have effects on child motive and can directly and indirectly effect if is it value to be great at science etc.

Teacher Influences:

• There are still Teachers with the issue of believing students with that can go with a math path are males and female aren't.
• Student with gender labels will always treat them differently with how how teachers act.
• The self made prophecy.
• Knowing the problems- more better act by teach and students needs.

Peer Influences Part 1:

• Student who want to be seen a certain way show it with their friend/peers who do the same way and in order to " fit" the goal.
• The gender group can also effect certain areas a person wants to join, and the student will go the other path.
• Those who go Against traditions in any given area they face issues with friends.
• Interest in anything is a plus the is why gender is all ways trying to bring better ways in certain areas .

Interpersonal Communication

• The combination of interaction way with others, can be done with being kind also in a aggressive manner, or passive aggressive styles.

Interpersonal Communication:

• Model of communication involves affiliation
• the the factor is connection that are are are like the person being in interaction witth you.
• is it is it in a supportive aggressive act?
• The person action will always will will give off if they are in their self to take care a factor or compete/aggressive manner.
• Behavior that is made for make make the situation better and be a win and win is collaboration the best action .
• If the behaviors get controlling and the lower acts, things can be bad quick for all parties.

Communication Styles During Peer Interactions:

• Small effects from data shows collab was good and controlling what was bad
• Speaking way where the speaker shares all ( self problems ) all problems are bad ( must have balance to be better)
• It limited, intersex or out and data with them as well.

Explanations for Gender Differences in Interpersonal Goals and Communication:

• Most of all in that age group all have commonalities goals to achieve, so that is a the the top thing of
• there might not be a lot of data in this but over all is like 3 common things or in short or or.
• boys tend to be more aggressive and try to get things done their ways.
• The " Girls" want " the best path/supportive route " to go.

Family and Peer Influences:

• Parents model how they were raised a lot at home.
• small things the the affect child
• the mother is nice
• the father want take over
• there certain are all.
• The all the to do stuff together and like all their differences can can impact the group and friends.

Cultural Influences 3:

• It's are, the end to be what the norm is.
• Canada is all ways diverse and has a the the to it
• So is said that in cross the way the and with "gals they share " well but the the want take over to be all they are.

Aggressive Behavior:

• Magnitude of in differences in short it always will depend on many factor.
• Direct and be and use boys usually direct issues .
• but or so can be bad so gals with that and go group and so more common is gals so are not the great but to make is.

Explanation for Gender Differences in Aggression:

• Bio data, not directly impact can from from, such the boys and are.

Factors to Help Stop Agressors:

• Mom and pop are in school that hate and with guys
• They can do bad is the bad is.
• A style can make the factor bad.

Influence On Children:

• Make people the the or they can be in .
• A team to what was to them.