Lifespan Development Chapter 7: Girls and Women

Lifespan Development (Chapter 7)

• This chapter discusses the development of girls and women and the cultural influences that shape this development.

Infancy

• Sex differences in infancy involve activity levels, inhibitory control, perceptual sensitivity, negative affect, and attention.
• Gender segregation effect exists.
• Mothers may have different expectations for their baby's crawling abilities based on sex.
• The Baby X study reveals how expectations of babies can be based on perceived sex.

Childhood

• Acquisition of gender identity includes gender constancy, gender identity, gender stability, appearance rigidity, gender consistency and gender dysphoria.
• Trans-affirmative practice is important.
• Gender essentialism describes preschoolers.
• Tobin et al.'s (2010) gender self-socialization model exists.
• Socialization is a key concept.
• Channeling (shaping) involves parents socializing children into gender stereotypical roles.
• Parents treat boys and girls differently through language and behaviors.
• Parental modeling impacts a child's gender development.
• Teacher behaviors continue to socialize children regarding attention and gender salience in the classroom.
• Media influences children's gender development.

Adolescence

• Stages of gender constancy development occur with specific events at each stage.
• Gender identity preferences may be implicit or explicit in transgender and cisgender children.
• Gender intensification occurs in early adolescence.
• Erikson's (1950) identity vs. role confusion stage in adolescence includes proposed sex differences.
• Male and female same-sex friendships differ, with some changes in friendship composition during adolescence.
• Secondary sex characteristics develop differently in males and females during adolescence, impacting psychology (e.g., budding breast, menarche).
• Growth spurts occur at different ages for males and females.
• Pubertal timing affects individuals differently.
• Puberty differs for transgender youth, which is where trans-affirmative care comes in.
• Co-rumination involves sex differences with psychological repercussions.
• Sexualization (sexual objectification) impacts the adolescent girl.
• Objectified body consciousness differs by sex.
• Girl's self-esteem trajectory is affected during adolescence.

Early Adulthood

• The average age for American women to marry and the percentage married by age 40 are important statistics.
• There are advantages and disadvantages to marriage, as well as psychological well-being factors for women who never marry.
• The U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) is a relevant case.
• There is a specific divorce rate in the U.S.
• Divorce has economic effects on women.
• A certain percentage of divorced women remarry.
• Jessie Bernard’s (1972) His and Hers Marriage includes specific conclusions.
• Motherhood mandate exists.
• Motherhood war exists.
• Intensive mothering exists.
• Psychological well-being of women who do not wish to become mothers should be considered.
• Cultural differences can occur in marriage (arranged marriages) and childbearing (China's two-child policy).

Middle Age

• The empty nest syndrome is a known effect.
• Extant literature presents information about empty nest syndrome.
• Extant literature informs general psychological well-being in midlife.
• Risks of childbirth exist after 40.

Old Age

• Menopause brings defined physical and psychological effects to women.
• Grandmother effect has a meaning.
• The double standard of aging exists.
• There is a sex difference in chronic illness.
• Life expectancies differ for females and males.
• The female/male ratio changes across old age, which can have effects on women.
• Sex differences exist in widowhood.
• Sex differences are present in cognitive aging.

Abilities, Motivation and Achievement (Chapter 8)

• Empirical evidence explores abilities and achievement in women compared to men.

Identified Sex Differences

• Sex differences, along with effect sizes, exist in general intelligence, verbal ability, spatial ability (mental rotation, special perception, special visualization), mathematical ability, and physical performance/athletics.
• Gender and identity affect sex differences in school achievement.
• Success attributions show sex differences.
• Eccles expectancy-value model of achievement has specific components and assesses specific elements.
• Reasons exist for the gender gap in occupational achievement in computer science, engineering and physics (CEP).

Gender and Work (Chapter 9)

• This chapter reviews the difficulties women face in the workplace.
• Considerations include balancing work and family, occupational segregation, and sex discrimination.
• A certain percentage of women work outside the home.
• Common stereotypes about women and work exist.
• Sex discrimination includes, patronizing behavior and tokenism.
• Sexual harassment involves abuse.
• The Invisible War video reviews abuse in the military.
• Glass ceiling and labyrinth are terms that relate to the workplace environment.
• Classified “want” ads display modern sexism.
• Discrimination in work product can happen.
• A pay gap exists with potential reasons for the inequity.
• Motherhood penalty can be impacted by certain factors.
• Occupational segregation perpetuates gender stereotypes and inequality.
• Progress has occurred in education, but that doesn't always relate to numbers of males and females in the workforce.
• Comparable worth is hard to implement.
• Leadership styles differ by sex.
• Stereotypes affect leadership issues women face.
• Eagly’s role congruity theory explains prejudice against women in the workplace.
• Eagly's meta-analysis suggests some information about sex differences in the ability to lead.
• U.S. parental leave policies differ from Sweden.
• The second shift impacts women's psychological and physical health.
• Role strain, role overload, and inter-role conflict relate to being a wife and working mom.
• Scarcity and expansionist hypotheses are major theories about multiple roles on women.
• Spillover and compensation effects can occur.

Biology and Gender (Chapter 10)

• Biological sex differences create psychological gender differences and affect women's behavior.
• Male and female sex chromosomes (XY, XX) differ including the potential maternal/paternal contribution.
• Sex-linked traits can be defined.
• The SRY gene has a purpose.
• X-chromosome inactivation occurs for a reason.
• Genomic imprinting is a key concept.
• Epigenetics and animal research suggest that genes are not destiny.
• There are sex differences in basic physiological processes, these include metabolism, drug absorption, pain sensitivity with effect sizes.
• There are major male and female sex hormones.
• Organizing effects differ from activating effects.
• Prenatal development goes through major points of sex differentiation.
• Intersexuality conditions include CAH, Turner syndrome, Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome, and 5 Alpha-Redactase Deficiency.
• Sex hormones have activating effects during adolescence.
• Testosterone has effects different in males and females.
• Sex differences exist in areas of the brain, including the hypothalamus, corpus callosum, and brain size.
• Lateralization is defined using the split visual field and dichotic listening tasks.
• Cognitive crowding hypothesis explains sex differences in verbal ability and special ability.
• Neural plasticity describes changes in the brain.
• New research is emerging on the brain "mosaic."
• Brain structures in transwomen change with hormone therapy.

Gender and Sexuality (Chapter 12)

• This chapter discusses female anatomy, maturation, sexuality, and disorders.
• Distinctions exist between gender identity and sexual identity.
• Female sexual anatomy: uterus, cervix, vagina, urethra, G-spot (Skene's gland), clitoris, corpora cavernosa of clitoris, glans of clitoris, and crura of clitoris.
• Terms like vasocongestion, myotonia, orgasmic platform, and orgasm relate to female sexuality.
• The four phases of the female sexual response cycle (Masters & Johnson) and gender differences.
• Triphasic and Dual Control Models of sexual response are key facts.
• The following fallacies involving female sexuality are: vaginal (vs. clitoral) orgasm, sexuality in older women, and female ejaculation.
• Sexual response and orgasm differences exist in the genders.
• Masturbation, pornography, attitudes toward casual sex, number of sexual partners, hooking up, and first intercourse are considered.
• BOGUS PIPELINE research investigates specific points.
• Penile strain gauge and photoplethysmograph are used to measure sexual arousal in research.
• Sex media impacts female sexual development.
• The double standard and the missing discourse of desire both affect children.
• Disruptions can cause disorders.
• Orgasmic disorder, vaginismus, dyspareunia, hypoactive sexual desire, and asexuality are all different disorders.
• Therapies for female sexual disorders encompass behavioral, cognitive behavioral, bibliotherapy, Kegel exercises, and feminist sex therapy.

Gender and Sexual Orientation (Chapter 13)

• Exploring homosexuality and bisexuality, and the challenges those individuals face.
• Key terms: sexual orientation, homosexuality, heterosexuality, lesbian, sexual minority, queer, homophobia, antigay prejudice, compulsory heterosexuality, heteronormativity, coming out, civil union, LBG, and performativity.
• Queer theory is a main point.
• Stereotypes about homosexual orientation can be explained.
• Discrimination and victimization can occur.
• Antigay prejudice has changed over time.
• Laws affecting gay couples, such as "don't ask, don't tell" and those related to marriage are involved.
• Intersectionality perspective is relevant.
• Members of a perceived minority may see benefits.
• Dual identity brings defined benefits.
• Homosexual and heterosexual relationships can differ by relationship quality, stability, and childrearing practices.
• Sexual fluidity exists with gender differences.
• Sexual orientation stems from biology (genetics/hypothalamus/hormones) and environmental factors.
• Psychosocial adjustment of children differs for heterosexual and homosexual parents.
• Sexual minorities face unique issues.
• Microaggressions can occur towards the population.
• Lesbians and gay men differ.
• Public attitudes differ toward lesbians and gay men.
• Past beliefs can affect one's mental health.
• Mental health contrasts exist between heterosexual and lesbian women.
• APA guidelines are used by therapists treating an LGB client.
• Civil unions and gay marriage have changed in the U.S.
• The queer of color critique is considered.